TABLE 1.

Overview of studies that assessed snack foods and satiety

Study	Target population	Study design	Intervention type	Comparison group	Results
Almiron-Roig et al. (44)	30 participants, 9 men and 21 women; mean age: 36.6 ± 9.1 y	Randomized crossover trial	Participants were given 5 preloads (a fiber-enriched drinking yogurt, a regular drinking yogurt, plain crackers, fresh banana, or an isovolumetric serving of water) over 5 sessions (with a minimum of 2 d between sessions).	Water served as the comparison.	Fiber-enriched yogurt was more satiating than regular yogurt, banana, crackers, and water. A trend was suggested, with fiber-enriched yogurt having the highest satiating effect followed by regular yogurt, then banana and crackers.
Alper and Mattes (38)	15 participants, 7 women and 8 men; mean age: 33 ± 9 y	Crossover intervention study	Participants were provided peanuts that equaled ∼505 ± 118 kcal/d for 8 wk with no dietary guidance, 3 wk with instructions to add peanuts to their customary diet, and 8 wk in which peanuts replaced an equal amount of other fats in the diet.	The period of time when peanuts that equaled ∼ 505 ± 118 kcal/d were provided for 8 wk with no dietary guidance served as the control.	There were no significant differences in the mean desire to eat, mean prospective consumption, and mean fullness ratings with regard to the intervention. However, peanuts had a high satiety value overall.
Barbour et al. (48)	24 participants, 11 women and 13 men; mean age: 61 ± 1 y	Triple crossover study	Participants consumed isoenergetic amounts of high-oleic or regular peanuts (56–84 g) or potato crisps (60–90 g) over 3 d after an overnight fast.	Unsalted potato crisps served as the control food.	No differences in perceived satiety were observed.
Brennan et al. (46)	12 participants	—	Participants consumed either a standard 25-g glucose drink in which psyllium and oat bran were incorporated at a 15% replacement concentration to flour or a control product.	The control product served as the comparison.	The inclusion of oat bran into the snack products extended the glycemic response of individuals compared with the control snack, potentially affecting satiety responses.
de Luis et al. (50)	38 participants, 9 men and 27 women; mean ages: 45.3 ± 16.1 and 50.8 ± 16.2 y, depending on the subgroup	Double-blind randomized clinical trial	Participants were randomly assigned to a test group that received cookies enriched with fructo-oligosaccharides or to a control group that received cookies with no fructo-oligosaccharides.	Control cookies served as the comparison.	After the test meal, the baseline AUC of the satiety score was higher with the satiety cookie than with the control cookie. Results were similar at follow-up.
Dougkas et al. (43)	40 men; mean age: 32 ± 9 y	Randomized crossover trial	Participants attended 4 sessions that were 1 wk apart. They received 3 isoenergetic (841 kJ) and isovolumetric (410 mL) servings of dairy snacks or water (control) 120 min after breakfast.	Water served as the comparison.	All dairy snacks tested reduced appetite compared with water. Hunger ratings were 8%, 10%, and 24% lower after the intake of yogurt than after cheese, milk, and water, respectively.
Douglas et al. (42)	15 women; mean age: 26 ± 2 y	Randomized crossover study	Participants consumed afternoon snacks of yogurt with 5, 14, or 24 g protein, or no snack, for 3 d. On the fourth day, participants consumed a standardized lunch, and consumed their yogurt snack 3 h later or did not consume any snack.	The afternoons of “no snack” served as the comparison.	The yogurt snack led to reduced hunger and increased fullness compared with no snack. Among the types of snacks, hunger was lower and fullness was higher throughout the postsnack period after the higher-protein yogurt vs. the lower-protein yogurt.
Furchner-Evanson et al. (47)	19 women; mean age: 39.2 ± 0.7 y	Randomized, balanced crossover study	Participants consumed test foods (dried plums, low-fat cookies, white bread, and water only) on separate days. The test foods (except water) provided 238 kcal and were similar in total carbohydrate, fat, and protein content, but differed in fiber and sugar content.	A snack of 220 mL water served as the comparison.	The satiety index AUC was greater for the dried plum trial vs. the low-fat cookie trial.
Marmonier et al. (35)	11 men; mean age: 22.5 ± 0.5 y	Within-subject study	Participants were given a high-fat, a high-protein, or a high-carbohydrate snack that they were to consume 240 min after the beginning of lunch.	There was no control group.	Consumption of the high-protein snack delayed the request for dinner by 60 min, the high-carbohydrate snack delayed the dinner request by 34 min, and the high-fat snack delayed the dinner request by 25 min.
Marmonier et al. (35)	8 men; mean age: 22.6 ± 0.7 y	Within-subject study	Participants attended 3 sessions: 1) a basal session, 2) a session in which they consumed a high-protein snack, or 3) a session in which they consumed a high-carbohydrate snack 215 min after lunch.	Each participant was his own control.	Compared with the basal (no snack) session, the high-protein snack delayed the spontaneous dinner request by 38 ± 16 min, but the high carbohydrate snack did not.
Nguyen et al. (51)	35 participants, 17 men and 18 women; mean age: 33 ± 11 y	Counterbalanced within-subject study	Across 4 trials in a laboratory setting, participants consumed a standardized breakfast. They then were either given a snack of 1 cup (4 g, 15 kcal) popcorn, 6 cups (27 g, 100 kcal) 94% fat-free microwave popcorn, or 1 cup (28 g, 150 kcal) potato chips, each with 200 mL water, or they received the control (200 mL water).	Water (200 mL) served as the comparison.	Participants expressed less hunger, more satisfaction, and lower estimates of prospective food consumption after 6 cups of popcorn than after all other treatments. Popcorn exerted a stronger effect on short-term satiety than did potato chips.
Ortinau et al. (41)	20 women; mean age: 27 ± 2 y	Randomized crossover design study	Participants participated in three 8-h testing days comparing three 160-kcal afternoon snacks: high-protein yogurt, high-fat crackers, and high-fat chocolate.	The high-fat snacks served as the comparison.	The consumption of the yogurt snack led to greater reductions in afternoon hunger, but not fullness, vs. chocolate. The yogurt snack also delayed the request of dinner by 30 min compared with the chocolate snack.
Ortinau et al. (52)	32 women; mean age: 27 ± 2 y	Acute randomized crossover study	Participants consumed yogurt with either 5 or 14 g protein 3 h after consuming a standardized lunch. They then reported perceived hunger and fullness throughout the afternoon until dinner was voluntarily requested.	The yogurt with 5 g protein served as the comparison.	Snacking led to reductions in hunger and increases in fullness, although there were no differences in postsnack-perceived hunger or fullness between the 2 types of yogurt.
Simmons et al. (36)	20 participants, 8 men and 12 women; mean age: 25.3 ± 6.4 y	Randomized, counterbalanced, crossover study	Participants ate either a soy pretzel or wheat pretzel.	The wheat pretzel served as the comparison group.	The mean satiety score was 306.2 ± 215.0 cm × min for wheat vs. 311.3 ± 201.0 cm × min for the soy pretzel (P = 0.92). Soy did not have any effect on satiety in this study.
Tan and Mattes (37)	137 participants, 48 men and 89 women; mean ages ranged from 27.8 ± 10.7 to 32.9 ± 11.5 y, depending on the subgroup	Randomized, controlled, parallel-arm study	Participants were assigned to 1 of 5 groups: control, breakfast, lunch, morning snack, afternoon snack. Participants in the morning snack group were instructed to consume 43 g almonds as a morning snack for 4 wk. Participants in the afternoon snack group were instructed to consume 43 g almonds between lunch and dinner, with ≥2 h before and after these meals.	Participants in the control group were asked to avoid all nuts and seeds during the study period.	Postprandial “hunger” and “desire to eat” ratings were significantly less for the combined snack groups than for the combined meal and control groups (P = 0.026 and P = 0.023, respectively).
Vitaglione et al. (45)	20 participants, 10 men and 10 women; mean age: 18 ± 0.5 y	—	Participants received a 628-kJ or a 1884-kJ preload of barley β-glucan–enriched or control biscuits as a midmorning snack.	The control biscuits served as the comparison.	A decrease in the AUC of the desire to eat and an increase in the AUC of fullness and satiety were recorded with a small preload of barley β-glucan–enriched biscuit compared with a small preload of control biscuit.
Westerterp-Plantenga et al. (49)	48 women; mean ages ranged from 21.0 ± 0.7 to 33.4 ± 9.5 y, depending on the subgroup	Experimental design study	Participants received snacks that they could consume ad libitum and recorded food intake for 2 wk. In the first week, all snacks were full fat, and in the second week only half were full fat whereas the others were in reduced-fat reduced-energy form, and labeled as such.	—	Fat replacement in meals or in snacks did not result in changes in hunger and satiety ratings throughout the day. These results suggest short-term beneficial effects of fat replacement on energy and fat intake.
Zaveri and Drummond (40)	36 men; mean age: 39.6 ± 6.9 y	Randomized controlled trial	Participants were given 2 packets of cereal bars (30 g and high in carbohydrates) or almonds (28 g and high in protein) for 12 wk. They were free to eat the snacks at any time.	The control group did not receive the cereal bar or almonds and were asked to continue their habitual eating pattern.	Hunger did not significantly differ at baseline, 6 wk, or 12 wk between almond, cereal bar, and control groups.