TABLE 1.

Summary of clinical studies that investigated the effect of dietary patterns on sleep architecture¹

Study (ref)	Diet pattern	Subjects	Duration	Methods	Treatment group results2
Phillips et al. (20)	HC/LF diet vs. LC/HF diet	8 healthy men	4 d	Days 1–2: control diet (350 g carbohydrate, 140 g fat, 75 g protein)	SWS: lower with the HC/LF diet (97.8 min) and higher with the LC/HF diet (117.2 min) vs. the control diet (115.5 min)
				Days 3–4: HC/LF diet (600 g carbohydrate, 33 g fat, 75 g protein) or LC/HF diet (100 g carbohydrate, 225 g fat, 75 g protein)	REM: higher with the HC/LF diet (136.9 min) vs. the LC/HF (122.1 min) and control (103.6 min) diets
					NREM 1: lower with both the HC/LF (319.5 min) and LC/HF (331.5 min) diets vs. the control diet (342.2 min)
Yajima et al. (21)3	HC vs. HF meals	10 healthy men	1 d	HC test meal: dinner consumed at 2000 (10% protein, 10% fat, 80% carbohydrate)	SWS: decreased during sleep cycle 1 with the HC diet vs. the HF diet
				HF test meal: dinner consumed at 2000 (78% fat, 10% protein, 12% carbohydrate)
Lindseth et al. (22)	High-protein vs. HF vs. HC diets	44 healthy young adults (19–22 y old)	4 d	High-protein diet (56% protein, 22% carbohydrate, and 22% fat)	Wake episodes: decreased with the high-protein diet (13.5 times) vs. the control diet (16.7 times) (between-group)
				HC diet (56% carbohydrate, 22% protein, 22% fat)	SOL: lower with the HC diet (9.1 min) vs. the control diet (13.9 min)
				HF diet (56% fat, 22% carbohydrate, 22% protein)
				Control diet (50% carbohydrate, 35% fat, 15% protein)
Afaghi et al. (23)	High- vs. low-GI	12 healthy men (18–35 y old)	1 d	767 kcal/meal (8% protein, 1.6% fat, 90.4% carbohydrate)	SOL: lower with the high-GI diet at 4 h before bedtime (9.0 ± 6.2 min) vs. both low-GI diet at 4 h before bedtime (17.5 ± 6.2 min) and high-GI diet at 1 h before bedtime (14.6 ± 9.9 min)
				Low-GI diet [Mahatma rice (GI = 50) with meal 4 h before bedtime]
				High-GI diet 1 [jasmine rice (GI = 109) with meal 4 h before bedtime]
				High-GI diet 2 [jasmine rice (GI = 109) with meal 1 h before bedtime]
Afaghi et al. (24)	Very LC	14 healthy men (18–35 y old)	5 d	Control phase [3 d of mixed meals (15.5% protein, 12.5% fat, 72% carbohydrate) with 1 evening mixed test meal4]	REM: percentage of TST lower during very LC acute (17.6% ± 5.3%) and very LC ketosis (17.7% ± 5.4%) phases vs. control (21.4% ± 6.3%)
				Acute phase [night 3: very LC test meal4 (2400 kcal; 38% protein, 61% fat, <1% carbohydrate)]	SWS: higher during very LC acute (83.3 ± 33.8 min) and very LC ketosis (80.4 ± 628.0 min) phases vs. control (66.2 ± 30.1 min)
				Ketosis phase (2 d of very LC diet)
Kwan et al. (25)	LC	6 healthy young women (20–23 y old)	2 wk	Week 1: weighing and recording habitual diet	REM: onset latency increased from 66 ± 8 min to 111 ± 38 min
				Week 2: isoenergetic diet of 50-g/d carbohydrate restriction
St-Onge et al. (9)	Controlled vs. ad libitum food intake	26 healthy adults (30–45 y old)	1 d	Habitual sleep phase: 9 h/night in bed (2200–0700)	SWS: lower during the ad libitum food intake period (24.6 ± 12.8 min) than during controlled intake period (29.3 ± 13.9 min)
				Test day: ad libitum food intake	SOL: higher during the ad libitum food intake period (29.2 ± 23.1 min) than during controlled intake period (16.9 ± 11.1 min)
Crispim et al. (26)3	Ad libitum food intake	52 healthy adults (19–45 y old)	3 d	Test days: ad libitum food intake recorded by using food diary	Men:
					NREM 2: negatively correlated with nocturnal fat intake
					SE: negatively correlated with nocturnal fat intake
					REM: negatively correlated with nocturnal fat intake
					SOL: negatively correlated with nocturnal fat intake
					WASO: negatively correlated with nocturnal fat intake
					Women:
					SOL: positively correlated with nocturnal caloric, protein, carbohydrate, and fat intake
					SE: negatively correlated with nocturnal caloric, carbohydrate, and fat intake
					REM: negatively correlated with nocturnal fat intake
Driver et al. (27)	High-energy meal vs. evening fast vs. control meal	7 healthy men (20–24 y old)	1 d	Fast: evening fast beginning at 1300; maximum energy intake of 38 kcal consumed as fruit juice and water	No effect of evening fast (10 h) or high-energy evening meal on sleep architecture
				Control meal: administered at 2100 with a macronutrient ratio of 12:26:61 for fat, protein, and carbohydrate
				High-energy meal: administered at 2100 with a macronutrient ratio of 37:21:42 for fat, protein, and carbohydrate, with double the energy content of the control meal
Lieberman et al. (28)	Calorie deprivation	27 healthy young adults	2 d	All diets composed of hydrocolloid gels	No effects of 2-d calorie deprivation on sleep
				Carbohydrate diet: starch and maltodextrin gel
				Carbohydrate+fat diet: starch, maltodextrin, and polyunsaturated lipid gel
				Calorie deprivation: hydrocolloid-based gel with artificial sweeteners and flavors
Karacan et al. (29)	Calorie deprivation	11 healthy men (22–25 y old)	3 d	Day 1: normal food intake with dinner meal as the last meal before fast	REM: lower number of REM episodes (3.49 ± 0.9 vs. 4.4 ± 0.5 episodes) and higher percentage of stage 4 REM sleep (15% ± 7% vs. 11% ± 6%) on day 3 vs. day 1; higher percentage of stage 4 REM sleep (15% ± 7% vs. 10% ± 7%) and lower percentage of stage 2 REM sleep (49% ± 9% vs. 53% ± 7%) on day 3 vs. day 2
				Days 2–3: fasting days (no food intake)

¹GI, glycemic index; HC, high carbohydrate; HF, high fat; LC, low carbohydrate; LF, low fat; NREM, nonrapid eye movement; NREM 1, nonrapid eye movement stage 1; NREM 2, nonrapid eye movement stage 2; ref, reference; REM, rapid eye movement; SE, sleep efficiency; SOL, sleep onset latency; SWS, slow wave sleep; WASO, wake after sleep onset.

²Only significant results are reported, P < 0.05. Results are shown relative to the control group unless otherwise noted.

³Numerical data not provided.

⁴Test meals 4 h before bedtime.