Table 3.
Training- and lifestyle-related changes in cognition from pre- to post-test
| Difference Post-Pre [95 % CI] | Group × Time | Lifestyle × Time | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcome measure | CT (n = 16) | PT (n = 18) | WLC (n = 20) | F statistic | p | F statistic | p |
| Global cognition | 0.20 [0.03–0.37] | 0.16 [0.01–0.30] | 0.32 [0.22–0.43] | F(2,48) = 2.64 | 0.08 | F(1,48) = 18.77 | <0.001 |
| Memory | 0.34 [0.11–0.57] | 0.15 [-0.10–0.40] | 0.38 [0.19–0.58] | F(2,48) = 1.78 | 0.18 | F(1,48) = 23.88 | <0.001 |
| Attention / executive functions | 0.06 [-0.20–0.31] | 0.16 [-0.03–0.36] | 0.27 [0.11–0.42] | F(2,48) = 0.66 | 0.52 | F(1,48) = 0.07 | 0.79 |
| ADAS free recall | -0.34 [-0.89–0.22] | 0.15 [-0.36–0.66] | -0.08 [-0.61–0.45] | F(2,48) = 1.33 | 0.27 | F(1,48) = 2.47 | 0.12 |
| ADAS recognition | 0.00 [-1.13–1.13] | -0.44 [-1.27–0.38] | 0.25 [-0.55–1.05] | F(2,47) = 0.71 | 0.50 | F(1,47) = 1.06 | 0.31 |
| ADAS orientation | 0.00 [-0.48–0.48] | 0.22 [-0.14–0.59] | 0.10 [-0.11–0.31] | F(2,48) = 0.42 | 0.66 | F(1,48) = 0.00 | 0.96 |
| ADAS imagination | -0.19 [-0.48–0.1] | 0.17 [-0.43–0.76] | -0.15 [-0.32–0.02] | F(2,48) = 0.93 | 0.40 | F(1,48) = 0.38 | 0.54 |
| ADAS naming | -0.12 [-0.55–0.3] | 0.00 [-0.17–0.17] | 0.00 [0.00–0.00] | F(2,48) = 0.43 | 0.65 | F(1,48) = 0.08 | 0.78 |
| ADAS verbal expression | 0.00 [0.00–0.00] | 0.00 [0.00–0.00] | 0.00 [0.00–0.00] | ||||
| ADAS verbal comprehension | -0.06 [-0.20–0.07] | 0.06 [-0.06–0.17] | -0.05 [-0.29–0.19] | F(2,48) = 0.44 | 0.65 | F(1,48) = 0.80 | 0.38 |
| ADAS word finding disturbances | -0.19 [-0.40–0.03] | -0.11 [-0.27–0.05] | -0.10 [-0.31–0.11] | F(2,48) = 0.05 | 0.95 | F(1,48) = 0.00 | 0.99 |
| CERAD figure copy | 0.27 [-0.18–0.71] | 0.33 [-0.23–0.90] | 0.15 [-0.29–0.59] | F(2,47) = 0.47 | 0.63 | F(1,47) = 0.02 | 0.89 |
| CERAD figure recall | -1.14 [-2.68–0.39] | 0.00 [-0.84–0.84] | -0.15 [-0.91–0.61] | F(2,46) = 0.90 | 0.41 | F(1,46) = 0.85 | 0.36 |
| CERAD Boston Naming Test | 0.06 [-0.47–0.59] | -0.17 [-1.78–1.44] | 0.20 [-0.25–0.65] | F(2,48) = 0.16 | 0.85 | F(1,48) = 0.17 | 0.68 |
| TMT A | 0.36 [0.02–0.71] | 0.22 [-0.14–0.59] | 0.51 [0.12–0.91] | F(2,48) = 0.73 | 0.49 | F(1,48) = 2.07 | 0.16 |
| TMT B | -0.01 [-0.46–0.43] | 0.28 [-0.14–0.70] | 0.20 [-0.03–0.43] | F(2,48) = 0.22 | 0.81 | F(1,48) = 1.71 | 0.20 |
| Phonematic fluency | 0.06 [-0.31–0.43] | 0.48 [-0.11–1.07] | 0.45 [-0.003–0.91] | F(2,48) = 0.79 | 0.46 | F(1,48) = 1.64 | 0.21 |
| Semantic fluency | 0.20 [-0.10–0.50] | -0.02 [-0.29–0.26] | 0.23 [-0.12–0.57] | F(2,48) = 0.70 | 0.50 | F(1,48) = 0.11 | 0.74 |
| MVGT encoding | 0.47 [0.16–0.78] | 0.34 [-0.04–0.71] | 0.66 [0.37–0.95] | F(2,47) = 1.46 | 0.24 | F(1,47) = 15.96 | <0.001 |
| MVGT delayed free recall | 0.68 [0.39–0.97] | -0.00 [-0.41–0.41] | 0.49 [0.27–0.72] | F(2,45) = 6.62 | 0.003 | F(1,45) = 9.91 | 0.003 |
| MVGT recognition | 1.27 [-0.26–2.80] | 0.78 [-0.03–1.59] | -0.28 [-1.02–0.46] | F(2,46) =2.35 | 0.11 | F(1,46) = 0.14 | 0.71 |
| Digit span forward | -0.03 [-0.56–0.50] | -0.19 [-0.71–0.33] | 0.07 [-0.33–0.47] | F(2,48) = 0.58 | 0.57 | F(1,48) = 0.23 | 0.64 |
| Digit span backward | -0.28 [-0.86–0.30] | 0.31 [-0.19–0.81] | 0.14 [-0.29–0.57] | F(2,48) = 0.73 | 0.49 | F(1,48) = 0.79 | 0.38 |
| Digit-symbol-coding | 0.12 [-0.35–0.59] | -0.11 [-0.35–0.14] | 0.19 [-0.10–0.48] | F(2,48) = 1.83 | 0.17 | F(1,48) = 0.09 | 0.76 |
| ECB computation span | 0.22 [-0.20–0.65] | 0.19 [-022–0.59] | 0.33 [-0.03–0.69] | F(2,44) = 0.26 | 0.77 | F(1,44) = 2.00 | 0.16 |
Depicted are the mean differences in cognitive measures between pre- and post-test within the three groups and 95 % confidence intervals in brackets, as well as statistics for Group × Time and Lifestyle × Time interactions
CT Cognitive training group, PT Physical training group, WLC Wait-list control group. ADAS, Alzheimer’s Diseases Assessment Scale, CERAD Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease, TMT Trail Making Test (part A and B), MVGT German adaptation of the California Verbal Learning Test, ECB Everyday Cognition Battery