Table 2.
Means and standard deviations in parentheses for writing measures of the graphomotor abilities.
| Writing duration (ms) | In air time (ms) | Number of pen lifts | Velocity (mm/s) | NIVs | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LOOPS WITHOUT DOTS | |||||
| Preschool | |||||
| Paper | 11918.97 (5832.35) | 394.29 (1054.81) | 1.69 (1.32) | 41.40 (20.29) | 76.94 (41.51) |
| Tablet | 8741.83 (3988.76) | 37.20 (181.56) | 1.06 (0.24) | 54.78 (22.61) | 52.46 (26.18) |
| p-value | 0.012* | 0.039* | 0.038* | 0.026* | 0.005* |
| b-value | −0.305 | −1.789 | −0.762 | 12.264 | −24.762 |
| Second grade | |||||
| Paper | 9548.36 (5591.74) | 127.50 (358.57) | 1.36 (0.79) | 59.21 (25.31) | 60.43 (34.95) |
| Tablet | 6696.05 (2497.08) | 128.81 (307.44) | 1.19 (0.40) | 80.49 (20.93) | 40.64 (14.84) |
| p-value | 0.077 | 0.638 | 0.524 | 0.014* | 0.024* |
| b-value | −0.239 | 0.370 | −0.104 | 17.825 | −18.875 |
| Adults | |||||
| Paper | 4760.90 (1273.86) | 0 | 1 | 104.55 (36.75) | 34.88 (7.46) |
| Tablet | 4549.95 (934.84) | 0 | 1 | 125.06 (31.97) | 32.30 (5.75) |
| p-value | 0.216 | − | − | <0.001* | 0.021* |
| b-value | −0.047 | − | − | 23.979 | −2.920 |
| LOOPS WITH DOTS | |||||
| Preschool | |||||
| Paper | 15487.32 (5731.07) | 355.86 (1012.18) | 1.43 (1.04) | 28.64 (10.78) | 95.84 (37.34) |
| Tablet | 13698.38 (4273.72) | 314.38 (570.60) | 1.49 (0.80) | 37.24 (11.94) | 78.68 (25.40) |
| p-value | 0.226 | 0.226 | 0.909 | 0.011* | 0.039* |
| b-value | −0.108 | 1.066 | 0.025 | 8.130 | −17.300 |
| Second grade | |||||
| Paper | 12883.36 (4278.60) | 157.79 (302.76) | 1.30 (0.55) | 31.47 (13.97) | 75.49 (28.41) |
| Tablet | 11376.30 (3010.24) | 276.87 (620.24) | 1.38 (0.74) | 41.80 (14.93) | 63.91 (19.20) |
| p-value | 0.173 | 0.980 | 0.499 | 0.001* | 0.125 |
| b-value | −0.091 | −0.022 | 0.096 | 9.984 | −10.038 |
| Adults | |||||
| Paper | 8168.95 (2420.36) | 0 | 1 | 43.03 (16.07) | 43.36 (12.50) |
| Tablet | 7636.17 (2165.83) | 0 | 1 | 53.17 (18.17) | 42.63 (9.90) |
| p-value | 0.026* | − | − | <0.001* | 0.249 |
| b-value | −0.099 | − | − | 11.853 | −2.960 |
| ZIGZAG LINES | |||||
| Preschool | |||||
| Paper | 11609.78 (3801.26) | 393.22 (1007.98) | 1.68 (1.66) | 34.13 (15.01) | 67.46 (27.90) |
| Tablet | 9993.20 (2860.59) | 46.78 (184.47) | 1.07 (0.26) | 48.89 (17.22) | 52.20 (16.32) |
| p-value | 0.025* | 0.105 | 0.056 | <0.001* | 0.005* |
| b-value | −0.122 | −1.337 | −0.696 | 14.413 | −13.913 |
| Second grade | |||||
| Paper | 10986.82 (4088.58) | 85.69 (174.71) | 1.18 (0.49) | 33.37 (14.80) | 60.47 (25.23) |
| Tablet | 9818.04 (2784.52) | 232.79 (306.19) | 1.31 (0.60) | 47.81 (19.03) | 51.09 (14.44) |
| p−value | 0.039* | 0.212 | 0.558 | <0.001* | 0.015* |
| b−value | −0.104 | 0.995 | 0.083 | 14.745 | −9.917 |
| Adults | |||||
| Paper | 7938.73 (2511.17) | 0 | 1 | 40.54 (15.37) | 42.52 (12.70) |
| Tablet | 7552.21 (2467.75) | 0 | 1 | 51.83 (18.95) | 40.50 (10.45) |
| p-value | 0.188 | − | − | <0.001* | 0.211 |
| b-value | −0.063 | − | − | 12.636 | −2.348 |
| STAIRCASE PATTERN | |||||
| Preschool | |||||
| Paper | 12785.67 (4419.22) | 264.90 (894.64) | 1.43 (1.40) | 16.84 (6.37) | 76.64 (29.77) |
| Tablet | 14368.05 (6587.95) | 357.93 (1171.46) | 1.36 (0.91) | 20.29 (8.83) | 78.88 (29.73) |
| p-value | 0.263 | 0.816 | 0.509 | 0.114 | 0.789 |
| b-value | 0.094 | 0.180 | −0.250 | 2.870 | 1.896 |
| Second grade | |||||
| Paper | 12917.60 (4562.05) | 142.18 (373.93) | 1.20 (0.40) | 13.55 (5.45) | 78.86 (29.11) |
| Tablet | 11619.42 (3897.41) | 323.88 (608.87) | 1.46 (0.81) | 18.62 (7.33) | 70.20 (24.67) |
| p-value | 0.200 | 0.056 | 0.033* | <0.001* | 0.214 |
| b-value | −0.085 | 1.553 | 0.352 | 4.715 | −6.926 |
| Adults | |||||
| Paper | 8301.65 (2647.80) | 48.86 (288.61) | 1.10 (0.57) | 20.76 (8.14) | 48.88 (18.13) |
| Tablet | 7663.69 (2462.25) | 0 | 1 | 26.78 (10.32) | 44.43 (15.60) |
| p-value | 0.051 | − | − | <0.001* | 0.047* |
| b-value | −0.090 | − | − | 6.610 | −5.484 |
The p-value refers to the comparison for Medium (tablet vs. paper). The b-value refers to the regression coefficient of the tablet condition in comparison to paper. The asterisk indicates significant effects below an alpha-level of 0.05.