Figure 1.

Illustration of toxicity caused by CM in the nephron and sites of origin of biomarkers.

Note: RIS: superoxide ( ${\mathrm{O}}_2^{\cdot -}$) and peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻).

Abbreviations: CM, contrast media; RIS, reactive inflammatory species; ROS, reactive oxygen species; IL-18, interleukin-18; IGFBP7, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 7; TIMP-2, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2; NGAL, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin; π-GST, pi-glutathione S-transferase; NAG, N-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase; Cys-C, cystatin C; β₂M, β₂-microglobulin; RBP, retinol-binding protein; KIM-1, kidney injury molecule-1; L-FABP, L-type fatty acid-binding protein; α-GST, alpha-glutathione S-transferase; GGT, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase; AP, alkaline phosphatase; DVR, descending vasa recta.