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. 2016 Jan 19;10(8):1815–1822. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2015.247

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Copyright © 2016 International Society for Microbial Ecology

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Potential interactions between pathogen density, virulence and hyperparasite prevalence. Hypovirulence may disrupt the adaptive benefit of pathogen virulence strategies under varying levels of density. This in turn can have knock-on effects for the hyperparasite itself by limiting pathogen population size and thus the opportunity for horizontal transmission. Some of this conflict can be ameliorated if hyperparasites utilize vertical transmission (Taylor, 2002). Arrows indicate the direction of effect.