AMPK: 5′ AMP-activated protein kinase, mTORC1: mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1, RHEB: Ras homolog enriched in brain, TSC: tuberous sclerosis, AKT: protein kinase B, ERK: Extracellular signal-regulated kinase, PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase, ULK: UNC-51-like kinase, Atg: Autophagy protein, RAB5: GTP binding protein, LC3: microtubule-associated light chain 3, MSC: mesenchymal stem cell, MB: Methylene blue.