Table 1.

Etiology of ESCC

Tobacco smoking and drinking of alcoholic beverages; these 2 factors work synergistically

Low intake of fruits and vegetables and associated marginal deficiencies in vitamins and trace elements

Carcinogens, e.g., nitrosamines, polyaromatic hydrocarbons

Thermal irritation from consumption of hot beverages, soup and food; physical irritation due to loss of teeth (poor oral hygiene)

Betel quid chewing in Taiwan and India

Extremely high salt intake in some populations

HPV 16 and 18 in some areas – results inconsistent

Genetic susceptibility, e.g., loci at PLCE1, C20orf54, ADH1B and ALDH2, coupled with alcohol consumption and smoking