Figure 6.

Schematic model for the protective mechanism of metformin in the treatment for Parkinson’s disease (PD). Metformin causes activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), followed by the induction of autophagy. Induced autophagy enhanced the clearance of injured mitochondria and reduced ROS production and α-synuclein accumulation. Decreased production of ROS reduced Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) nuclear translocation, and inhibited proinflammatory cytokines production. Furthermore, reduction of ROS production and α-synuclein accumulation attenuated Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation.