Table 1.

Spectrum of ADEs in patients with kidney dysfunction

Study	ADE category	Example
Miller et al. (2009)46 Zand et al. (2010)47	Inappropriate medication dosing for level of kidney function	Gabapentin 300 mg three times daily in a patient with an eGFR of 20 ml/min/1.73 m2, leading to central nervous system depression
Williams et al. (2004)48 Sica et al. (2004)49	Drug–drug interactions in patients with advanced CKD	Increased risk of bradycardia with atenolol and diltiazem (drugs cleared via the kidney) in a patient with end-stage renal disease
Chen (2009)50	Inappropriate prescribing	Use of morphine in a patient with stage 5 CKD, leading to accumulation of active metabolites
Bernstein et al. (1990)51	Inadequate monitoring	High levels of aminoglycoside in a patient receiving antibiotics for a prolonged period of time
Connolly et al. (2009)52	Failure to identify CKD	Reliance on serum creatinine concentration alone to assess renal function in an elderly patient
Perazella et al. (2009)53	Inappropriate diagnostic test	Use of gadolinium for MRI contrast in a patient with stage 5 CKD

Abbreviations: ADE, adverse drug event; CKD, chronic kidney disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate.