Table 2.
Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) specific risk factors of the participants enrolled in a cross-sectional survey, stratified by the five exposure groups in the Than Tri district, Hanoi, between April and June 2014
| Risk factors related to water, sanitation and hygiene/ Exposure groupsa | Com peri-urban | Com urban | Farmer peri-urban | Farmer urban | Worker HSDC | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N = 101 | N = 170 | N = 129 | N = 153 | N = 128 | ||||||
| n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | |
| Wastewater is … | ||||||||||
| polluted water | 87 | 86.1 | 162 | 95.3 | 111 | 86.0 | 143 | 93.5 | 126 | 98.4 |
| causing health issues | 83 | 82.2 | 149 | 87.6 | 96 | 74.4 | 141 | 92.2 | 126 | 98.4 |
| causing environmental issues | 83 | 82.2 | 149 | 87.6 | 93 | 72.1 | 135 | 88.2 | 127 | 99.2 |
| Exposure to wastewater (water from rivers or lakes around Hanoi) while … | ||||||||||
| flooding of living area | 0 | 0.0 | 5 | 2.9 | 3 | 2.3 | 2 | 1.3 | 17 | 13.3 |
| flooding of working area | 1 | 1.0 | 9 | 5.3 | 21 | 16.3 | 59 | 38.6 | 53 | 41.4 |
| washing clothes | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 1 | 0.7 | 2 | 1.6 |
| cleaning of a fish pond | 0 | 0.0 | 1 | 0.6 | 0 | 0.0 | 5 | 3.3 | 15 | 11.7 |
| fishing | 3 | 3.0 | 7 | 4.1 | 3 | 2.3 | 6 | 3.9 | 13 | 10.2 |
| swimming | 1 | 1.0 | 3 | 1.8 | 2 | 1.6 | 0 | 0.0 | 6 | 4.7 |
| Toilet facility at household | ||||||||||
| Flush toilet | 94 | 93.1 | 167 | 98.2 | 108 | 83.7 | 147 | 96.1 | 127 | 99.2 |
| Pit latrine | 6 | 5.9 | 6 | 3.5 | 2 | 1.6 | 6 | 3.9 | 0 | 0.0 |
| No facility (defecation in the open) | 1 | 1.0 | 1 | 0.6 | 19 | 14.7 | 1 | 0.7 | 1 | 0.8 |
| Toilet facility at work | ||||||||||
| Flush toilet | 91 | 90.1 | 150 | 88.2 | 61 | 47.3 | 47 | 30.7 | 39 | 30.5 |
| Pit latrine | 6 | 5.9 | 14 | 8.3 | 4 | 3.1 | 4 | 2.6 | 68 | 53.1 |
| No facility (defecation in the open) | 4 | 4.0 | 6 | 3.5 | 64 | 49.6 | 102 | 66.7 | 21 | 16.4 |
| Household with tap water | 82 | 81.2 | 164 | 96.5 | 102 | 79.1 | 148 | 96.7 | 126 | 98.4 |
| Source of drinking water (multiple answers possible) | ||||||||||
| Bottled water | 40 | 39.6 | 65 | 38.2 | 36 | 27.9 | 41 | 26.8 | 61 | 47.7 |
| Tap water | 60 | 59.4 | 149 | 87.6 | 73 | 56.6 | 136 | 88.9 | 113 | 88.3 |
| Rain water | 14 | 13.9 | 5 | 2.9 | 18 | 14.0 | 9 | 5.9 | 7 | 5.5 |
| Bore hole water | 31 | 30.7 | 7 | 4.1 | 43 | 33.3 | 4 | 2.6 | 1 | 0.8 |
| Source of bathing water (multiple answers possible) | ||||||||||
| Tap water | 73 | 72.3 | 150 | 88.2 | 55 | 42.6 | 70 | 45.8 | 123 | 96.1 |
| Rain water | 6 | 5.9 | 2 | 1.2 | 11 | 8.5 | 18 | 11.8 | 8 | 6.3 |
| Bore hole water | 42 | 41.6 | 16 | 9.4 | 76 | 58.9 | 9 | 5.9 | 12 | 9.4 |
| Well water | 2 | 2.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 4 | 3.1 | 0 | 0.0 | 2 | 1.6 |
| Water from lakes or rivers | 0 | 0.0 | 1 | 0.6 | 5 | 3.9 | 48 | 31.4 | 19 | 14.8 |
| Preventive chemotherapy received in the past | ||||||||||
| < 6 months | 13 | 12.9 | 15 | 8.8 | 15 | 11.6 | 11 | 7.2 | 15 | 11.7 |
| 6 to < 12 months | 9 | 14.1 | 24 | 14,1 | 12 | 9.3 | 12 | 7.8 | 20 | 15.6 |
| > 12 months | 75 | 71.2 | 121 | 71.2 | 96 | 74.4 | 114 | 74.5 | 87 | 68.0 |
| Never took deworming | 4 | 4.0 | 10 | 5.9 | 6 | 5.7 | 16 | 10.5 | 6 | 4.7 |
aExposure groups: Com peri-urban: people living in the peri-urban commune Duyen Ha, 5 km away from the city along the Red River; Com urban: people living in the urban area of Hanoi, in Bang B village or Tam Hiep commune along the To Lich River and potential exposed to wastewater; Farmer peri-urban: peri-urban farmers living in Duyen Ha commune using the irrigation water from Red River, wells or local drains, which are not contaminated with the city’s wastewater; Farmer urban: urban farmers living in Bang B village or Tam Hiep commune reusing wastewater from To Lich River; and Worker HSDC: workers from Hanoi Sewerage and Drainage Company (HSDC) maintaining drainage channels and operating the Yen So treatment plants