Table 1a.

Recent longitudinal studies (2009–2016) on potential protective factors contributing to cognitive resilience in pre-readers at-risk for RD.

	Study	Classification of “At-Risk”	Relevant Findings	Protective Factor(s)
Studies with Pre-Readers At-Risk for RD	Carroll et al. (2014) [26]	Family history of RD	At-risk RD children in kindergarten with good reading outcome 3 years later showed lower performance on spelling and reading accuracy than typical readers, but had better oral language skills (expressive vocabulary) than at-risk RD children with poor reading outcome.	Oral Language Skills
	Hulme et al. (2015) [27]	Family history of RD Language difficulties	Oral language measures (articulation, word repetition, and expressive vocabulary) in preschool predicted phoneme awareness and grapheme-phoneme knowledge at school entry, which predicted word-level literacy skills after school entry.	Oral Language Skills
	Torppa et al. (2010) [28]	Family history of RD	At-risk RD children with no later RD outperformed at-risk RD children with later RD in grade 2 on tasks of vocabulary production and maximum sentence length at 1–2 yrs old.	Oral Language Skills
	Gooch et al. (2014) [32]	Family history of RD	Preschool fine motor skills predicted unique variance in early reading skills at age 5 regardless of risk status.	Motor Skills
	Eklund et al. (2013) [31]	Family history of RD	Irrespective of early cognitive risk factors, high levels of task-focused behavior were associated with the absence of RD in grade 2 in kindergarteners at familial risk of RD at 5 years old.	High Levels of Task-Focused Behavior
	Thompson et al. (2015) [30]	Family history of RD Language difficulties	Executive function skills (inhibitory control, selective attention, working memory), fine motor skills, and oral language skills (expressive/receptive vocabulary, sentence repetition, sentence/word structure)in preschool all increase the prediction probability for later RD at 8 years old.	Executive Functions Motor Skills Oral Language Skills
	Muter and Snowling (2009) [29]	Family history of RD	In a longitudinal study, those at-risk pre-readers at 3 years who had the best reading outcome at 13 years had strong oral language skills (non-word repetition, vocabulary, grammatical sensitivity).	Oral Language Skills
	Kiuru et al. (2013) [47]	Low phonological awareness and poor letter knowledge	Environmental protective factors (peer acceptance, positive teacher affect) predicted students’ improved reading fluency in grade 4 with cumulative effects for those identified as at-risk for RD in kindergarten.	Interpersonal Relationships