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The structures of spruce lignin monomers coniferyl alcohol (A) and p-coumaryl alcohol (B), as well as four principal substructures in softwood lignin: 5-5-O-4 (C), β-O-4 (D), β-5 (E), and β-β (F). R denotes a continuing lignin molecule, or a hydrogen atom, if the molecule ends at that point. Similarly, R' denotes either a continuing lignin molecule or a phenylpropanoid side chain.
