Table 2.
Summary of risk assessment of some veterinary antimicrobial drugs on human public health associated with antimicrobial resistance and their molecular basis.
| Veterinary drug Use and ban | Associated Public health | Resistance monitoring data in animasl | Resistance monitoring data in humans | Risk assessment; Risk association | Molecular basis |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avoparcin, Used 1940s–1990s; Banned 1995–2000; Not approved in USA for use in animal. | Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and E. faecium (VREF) | In EU, high prevalence of VRE in 1990s and in poultry after 2000; In Denmark, VRE reduced from 1995 to 2013; few VRE in livestock during 2003–2013. | In U. S. A, 40% VRE infections in 2013; In EU, < 5% VRE in 2013. | Positive risk; Still some controversy questions | vanA gene located in transferable transposon Tn1546 |
| Virginiamycin, Used as GP for 30 years; Banned in 1999 in EU | streptogramin-resistant Enterococci (SRE), and E.faecium (SREF) | In Denmark, 25% SREF from pigs and chickens; In USA, 30–70% SREF from poultry products in 2012. | Very rare in human hospital. | FDA-CVM: risk is little weight | VatD, VatE; ErmB; VgbA; Hard resistance development |
| Veterinary fluoroquinolones, e.g., enrofloxacin Banned use on poultry in 2005 in USA | fluoroquinolones resistant Campylobacter jejuni | In USA, high prevalence of FQ-resistant C. jejuni in poultry before 2005, resistance reduced during 2005–2007, resistance increased during 2008–2011. | In USA, ciprofloxacin resistant C. jejuni kept increasing from 16.7% in 1997 to 25.3% in 2012. | FDA-CVM: Positive risk ECDC/EFSA/EMA JIACARA: no risk associations | Thr-86-Ile mutation in GyrA; high mutation rate and enhanced fitness in chicken |
| Veterinary Macrolides e.g., tylosin, tilmicosin. EU banned tylosin and spiramycin as GP since 1995 | Macrolide resistant Campylobacter spp | Resistant C.jejuni kept low level (< 1%) in USA and Denmark; Resistant C. coli in pig reduced during 1998 –2005 and kept at about 10% during 2006–2010 in Denmark; kept at a stable level in USA in the past decade. | Erythromycin resistant C. jejuni is rare in human | FDA-CVM: negative risk ECDC/EFSA/EMA JIACARA: positive risk associations | point mutation in target genes of 23S rRNA; low mutation frequency and fitness cost of resistance |
| Veterinary tetracyclines EU banned tetracyclines as growth promotor since 2006 | Tetracycline resistance in Salmonella Typhimurium | In Denmark, resistant S.Typhimurium from pigs had increased from less than 30% in 2001 to 47% in 2013. | High prevalent of tetracycline-resistant S. Typhimurium in human | ECDC/EFSA/EMA JIACARA report: positive associations | Tet genes were normally located in some transferable elements |
| Veterinary Cephalosporins | Cephalosporins resistance in E. coli and Salmonella | In USA, no significant change of resistance from animal product during 2002–2012; | Resistance kept at a very low level (< 1%) during 2000–2012 in USA. | ECDC/EFSA/EMA JIACARA report: no risk associations | Complex distribution of ESBLs in animal, human and environment. |
GP was Growth promotor; ESBL was extended-spectrum β-lactamases; ECDC/EFSA/EMA JIACARA was European center for disease prevention and control/European food safety authority/European Medicines Agency. Joint Interagency Antimicrobial Consumption and Resistance Analysis report. Risk association means the association between consumption of veterinary antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animal and the occurrence of resistance bacterial from human infection. The FDA-CVM risk means the relationship between the use of antimicrobial agents in food-producing animal and human public health associated with antimicrobial resistance in special foodborne pathogens.