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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2016 Oct 18.
Published in final edited form as: Trends Immunol. 2009 Oct 26;30(12):574–584. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2009.09.004

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Cytokine and chemokine induction in macrophages infected with H5N1 virus. Virus infection activates interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) and the p38-MAPK signaling pathways as well as others. Activation of these pathways leads to the expression of primary mediators such as tumor necrosis factor- α (TNF-α), the type I interferons (IFN)-α and -β which in turn trigger release of other cytokines and chemokines through autocrine and paracrine effects. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is involved in regulating cytokine expression within the infected cell, as well as those activated by secreted mediators in adjacent uninfected cells.