Table 1. Psychoactive plant taxa in this study.
Culturally diverse psychoactive plant taxa, their uses, indigenous psychoactive cultural origin, and corresponding Genbank numbers.
| Family (Order) | Accepted binomial name | Common name | Indigenous psychoactive culture | Mechanism of action | Genbank numbers |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acanthaceae (Lamiales) | Justicia pectoralis Jacq. | justicia | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, antidepressant, sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AJ879453 |
| Acoraceae (Acorales) | Acorus calamus L. | sweet flag | Indomalayan, Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, antidepressant, sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | AJ879453 |
| Aizoaceae (Caryophyllales) | Sceletium spp. | kougoed | African and Middle Eastern (Gericke & Viljoen, 2008) | Sedative, analgesic (Gericke & Viljoen, 2008) | HM850175 |
| Apiaceae (Apiales) | Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels | dong quai | Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, sedative (O’Mahony, 2010) | GQ436632 |
| Apiaceae (Apiales) | Centella asiatica (L) Urb. | gotu kola | Indomalayan, Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Antianxiety, antidepressant (Mamedov, 2005) | GQ436635 |
| Apocynaceae (Gentianales) | Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. | dita | African and Middle Eastern, Australasian, Indomalayan (Rätsch, 2005; Arulmozhi et al., 2012) | Stimulant, antianxiety, antidepressant, sedative, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005; Arulmozhi et al., 2012) | EU916739 |
| Apocynaceae (Gentianales) | Apocynum venetum L | luobuma | Temperate Asian (Grundmann et al., 2007) | Antianxiety, antidepressant (Grundmann et al., 2007; Zheng, Fan & Liu, 2013) | KP088474 |
| Apocynaceae (Gentianales) | Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl | Arabian numnum | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | JF265327 |
| Apocynaceae (Gentianales) | Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz | snakeroot | Indomalayan (Mamedov, 2005) | Antianxiety, antidepressant, sedative, analgesic (Spinella, 2001; Mamedov, 2005; Rätsch, 2005) | KJ667614 |
| Apocynaceae (Gentianales) | Tabernaemontana spp. | milkweed | Indomalayan, African, Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, antidepressant, sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005; Pratchayasakul et al., 2008; Cardoso et al., 2015) | EU916740 |
| Apocynaceae (Gentianales) | Tabernanthe iboga Baill. | iboga | African and Middle Eastern (Sayin, 2014) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, antianxiety, antidepressant, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Nigg & Seigler, 1992; Sayin, 2014) | AJ419763 |
| Apocynaceae (Gentianales) | Voacanga spp. | voacango bush | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | KC628529 |
| Aquifoliaceae (Aquifoliales) | Ilex spp. | yerba mate | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant (Rätsch, 2005) | FJ394625 |
| Araliaceae (Apiales) | Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. | ginseng | Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, antidepressant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | KM088019 |
| Arecaceae (Arecales) | Areca catechu L. | betel nut | Indomalayan (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | JX571781 |
| Asteraceae (Asterales) | Artemisia spp. | wormwood | European; Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005; Sayin, 2014) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, analgesic aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005; Sayin, 2014) | KM360653 |
| Asteraceae (Asterales) | Calea ternifolia Oliv | dream herb | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | AY215089 |
| Asteraceae (Asterales) | Lactuca virosa Habl. | wild lettuce | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | KM360888 |
| Asteraceae (Asterales) | Tagetes spp. | Mexican marigold | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, antianxiety, antidepressant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AY215184 |
| Bignoniaceae (Lamiales) | Bignonia nocturna (Barb.Rodr.) L.G.Lohmann [=Tanaecium nocturnum (Barb.Rodr.) Burea & K.Schum.] | koribo | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative, analgesic and aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | KR534325 |
| Burseraceae (Sapindales) | Boswellia sacra Flueck. | olibanum tree | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | KT934315 |
| Cactaceae (Caryophyllales) | Ariocarpus fissuratus (Engelm.) K.Schum. | chautle | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinoge, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | KC777009 |
| Cactaceae (Caryophyllales) | Echinopsis spp. (incl. Trichocereus pachanoi Britton & Rose) | San Pedro cactus | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant (Rätsch, 2005) | FR853367 |
| Cactaceae (Caryophyllales) | Lophophora williamsii (Lem. Ex Salm-Dyck) J.M. Coult. | peyote | Native American (Vetulani, 2001) | Hallucinogen (Vetulani, 2001) | KC777011 |
| Cactaceae (Caryophyllales) | Mammillaria spp. | false peyote | Native America (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | KC777008 |
| Cactaceae (Caryophyllales) | Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum (Engelm. ex S. Watson) Britton & Rose | pitayo | Native American (Schultes, 1976) | Hallucinogen (Schultes, 1976) | JN191499 |
| Campanulaceae (Asterales) | Lobelia tupa L. | tupa | Native American (Schultes, 1976) | Hallucinogen, sedative (Schultes, 1976; Rätsch, 2005) | EF174606 |
| Cannabaceae (Rosales) | Cannabis spp. | marijuana | Indomalayan, Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, antianxiety, antidepressant, sedative, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AF500344 |
| Cannabaceae (Rosales) | Humulus lupulus L. | hops | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Antianxiety, sedative (Heinrich et al., 2012) | KT266264 |
| Caprifoliaceae (Dipsacales) | Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. | jatamansi | Indomalaya (Chaudhary et al., 2015) | Antidepressant, sedative (Chaudhary et al., 2015) | AF446950 |
| Caprifoliaceae (Dipsacales) | Valeriana officinalis L. | valerian | European (Heinrich et al., 2012) | Antianxiety and sedative (Heinrich et al., 2012) | AY362490 |
| Celastraceae (Calastrales) | Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. | khat | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, antidepressant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ412336 |
| Columelliaceae (Bruniales) | Desfontainia spinosa Ruiz & Pav. | taique | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | Z29670 |
| Combretaceae (Myrtales) | Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. | bellerian myrobalan | Indomalaya (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | KT279740 |
| Convolvulaceae (Solanales) | Argyreia nervosa (Burm. F.) Bojer (=Argyreia speciosa (L. f.) Sweet) | Hawaiian baby | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005; Galani, Patel & Patel, 2010) | KF242477 |
| Convolvulaceae (Solanales) | Convolvulus tricolor L. | dwart morning glory | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | L11683 |
| Convolvulaceae (Solanales) | Ipomoea spp. | morning glory | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005; Meira et al., 2012) | KF242478 |
| Convolvulaceae (Solanales) | Turbina corymbosa (L.) Raf. | ololiuqui vine | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | AY100966 |
| Cupressaceae (Pinales) | Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don | Himalayan weeping juniper | Indomalayan, Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ512552 |
| Ephedraceae (Ephedrales) | Ephedra spp. | ephedra | Temperate Asian (Heinrich et al., 2012) | Stimulant (Rätsch, 2005) | AY056562 |
| Ericaceae (Ericales) | Ledum palustre L. | wild rosemary | Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | AF419831 |
| Ericaceae (Ericales) | Rhododendron molle G.Don. | yang zhi zhu | Temperate Asian (Mamedov, 2005) | Antidepressant (Mamedov, 2005) | AF421101 |
| Erythroxylaceae (Malpighiales) | Erythroxylum spp. | Coca | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, antianxiety, analgesic and aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AB925614 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Acacia spp. | wattle | African/Middle Eastern Australasian, Indomalayan, Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | HM849736 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Anadenanthera spp. | vilca, yopo | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen and analgesic (Schultes, 1976) | KJ082119 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Astragalus spp. | milk vetch | Native America (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | KU666554 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Calliandra anomala (Kunth) J.F. Macbr. | cabellito | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen and analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | AM234255 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Desmanthus illinoensis (Michx.) MacMill. | prairie bundle flower | Native American (Halpern, 2004) | Hallucinogen (Halpern, 2004) | KP126868 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Erythrina spp. | coral trees | Native American, Indomalaya (Rätsch, 2005). | Hallucinogen and sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | AB045801 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Lonchocarpus violaceus Benth. | balche’ tree | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ626245 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Mimosa spp. | mimosa | Native American, Indomalayan (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogenic, sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | KJ773686 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. | velvet bean | Indomalayan (Lampariello et al., 2012) | Hallucinogen, aphrodisiac (O’Mahony, 2010; Lampariello et al., 2012) | EU128734 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Rhynchosia pyramidalis (Lam.) Urb. | bird’s eyes | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | KJ594450 |
| Fabaceae (Fabales) | Sophora secundiflora (Ortega) DC. | mescal bean | Native American (Schultes, 1976) | Hallucinogen (Schultes, 1976) | Z70141 |
| Hypericaceae (Malpighiales) | Hypericum perforatum L. | St. John’s wort | European (Spinella, 2001) | Antianxiety, antidepressant (Spinella, 2001; Heinrich et al., 2012) | AF206779 |
| Iridaceae (Asparagales) | Crocus sativus L. | saffron | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Antianxiety, sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005; Hosseinzadeh & Noraei, 2009) | KF886671 |
| Lamiaceae (Lamiales) | Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (=Lavandula officinalis Chaix) | lavender | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Antianxiety, sedative, analgesic (Lis-Balchin & Hart, 1999; Hajhashemi, Ghannadi & Sharif, 2003) | KT948988 |
| Lamiaceae (Lamiales) | Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br. | lion’s tail | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | AM234998 |
| Lamiaceae (Lamiales) | Leonurus cardiaca L. | motherwort | European (Rauwald et al., 2015) | Antianxiety, antidepressant, sedative (Rauwald et al., 2015) | KM360848 |
| Lamiaceae (Lamiales) | Melissa officinalis L. | lemon balm | European (Vogl et al., 2013) | Antianxiety, sedative (Heinrich et al., 2012) | KM360879 |
| Lamiaceae (Lamiales) | Plectranthus scutellarioides (L.) R.Br. (=Coleus blumei Benth.) | coleus | Indomalayan (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ933273 |
| Lamiaceae (Lamiales) | Rosmarinus officinalis L. | rosemary | European (Ferlemi et al., 2015) | Antianxiety, antidepressant, analgesic (Ferlemi et al., 2015) | KR232566 |
| Lamiaceae (Lamiales) | Salvia divinorum Epling & Jativa | yerba de la pastora | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | AY570410 |
| Lamiaceae (Lamiales) | Scutellaria lateriflora L. | skullcap | Native American (Awad et al., 2003) | Antianxiety, sedative (Awad et al., 2003) | HQ590266 |
| Lauraceae (Laurales) | Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl | camphor | Indomalayan, Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | L12641 |
| Lauraceae (Laurales) | Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees | sassafras | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant (Rätsch, 2005) | AF206819 |
| Loganiaceae (Gentianales) | Strychnos nux-vomica L. | strychnine tree | Indomalaya (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, antianxiety, antidepressant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | L14410 |
| Lythraceae (Myrtales) | Heimia salicifolia (Kunth) Link | sinicuiche | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | AY905410 |
| Malpighiaceae (Malpighiales) | Banisteriopsis spp. | ayahuasca | Native American (Sayin, 2014) | Hallucinogen (Sayin, 2014) | HQ247440 |
| Malpighiaceae (Malpighiales) | Diplopterys cabrerana (Cuatrec) B. Gates | chaliponga | Native American (Sayin, 2014) | Hallucinogen (O’Mahony, 2010) | HQ247482 |
| Malvaceae (Malvales) | Cola spp. | kola nut | Africa and Middle Eastern (McClatchey et al., 2009) | Stimulant (McClatchey et al., 2009) | AY082353 |
| Malvaceae (Malvales) | Sida acuta Burm.f. | broomweed | Native America (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant (Rätsch, 2005) | KJ773888 |
| Malvaceae (Malvales) | Theobroma spp. | cacao | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ228389 |
| Malvaceae (Malvales) | Tilia spp. | linden | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Antianxiety, sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | KT894775 |
| Melanthiaceae (Liliales) | Veratrum album L. | white hellebore | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | KM242984 |
| Myristicaceae (Magnoliales) | Horsfieldia australiana S. T. Blake | nutmeg | Australasian (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | KF496315 |
| Myristicaceae (Magnoliales) | Myristica fragrans Houtt. | nutmeg | Australiasia, Indomalaya (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, sedative aprhodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AF206798 |
| Myristicaceae (Magnoliales) | Osteophloeum platyspermum (Spruce ex A.DC.) Warb. | huapa | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ625884 |
| Myristicaceae (Magnoliales) | Virola elongata (Benth.) Warb. | epena | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ626043 |
| Myrtaceae (Myrtales) | Psidium guajava L. | guava | African and Middl Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ025077 |
| Nitrariaceae (Sapindales) | Peganum harmala L. | harmal | African and Middle Eastern (Sayin, 2014) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, analgesic (Vetulani, 2001; Farouk et al., 2008) | DQ267164 |
| Nymphaeaceae (Nymphaeales) | Nuphar lutea (L.) Sm. | yellow water lily | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | DQ182338 |
| Nymphaeaceae (Nymphaeales) | Nymphaea spp. | water lily | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | GQ468660 |
| Olacaceae (Santalales) | Ptychopetalum olacoides Benth. | marapuama | Native American (Piato et al., 2008) | Stimulant, Antidepressant (Piato et al., 2008) | FJ038139 |
| Orchidaceae (Asparagales) | Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews | vanilla | Native America (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005; O’Mahony, 2010) | KJ566306 |
| Orobanchaceae (Lamiales) | Cistanche deserticola K.C.Ma | rou cong rong | Temperate Asian (Wang, Zhang & Xie, 2012) | Stimulant, aphrodisiac (O’Mahony, 2010) | KC128846 |
| Pandanaceae (Pandanales) | Pandanus spp. | screwpine | Australasian (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinoge, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | JX903247 |
| Papaveraceae (Ranunculales) | Argemone mexicana L. | Mexican poppy | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005; Brahmachari, Gorai & Roy, 2013) | U86621 |
| Papaveraceae (Ranunculales) | Eschscholzia californica Cham. | California poppy | Native American (Rolland et al., 1991) | Antianxiety, sedative, analgesic (Rolland et al., 1991) | KM360775 |
| Papaveraceae (Ranunculales) | Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. & Thomson | prickly blue poppy | Temperate Asian (Fan et al., 2015) | Sedative, analgesic (Fan et al., 2015) | JX087717 |
| Papaveraceae (Ranunculales) | Papaver somniferum L. | opium poppy | African and Middle Eastern (Vetulani, 2001) | Hallucinogen, sedative, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | KU204905 |
| Passifloraceae (Malpighiales) | Passiflora spp. | passion flower | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Antianxiety, sedative (Heinrich et al., 2012) | HQ900864 |
| Passifloraceae (Malpighiales) | Turnera diffusa Willd. ex Schult. | damiana | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, antianxiety, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | JQ593109 |
| Phytolaccaceae (Caryophyllales) | Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. | pokeweed | Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | HM850257 |
| Piperaceae (Piperales) | Arundo donax L. | giant reed | African and Middle Eastern; Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | U13226 |
| Piperaceae (Piperales) | Piper spp. | pepper, kava | Native American, Indomalayan, Australasian (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, antianxiety, sedative, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AY032642 |
| Plantaginaceae (Lamiales) | Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. | brahmi | Indomalayan (Shinomol, Muralidhara & Bharath, 2011) | Antianxiety, aphrodisiac (Shinomol, Muralidhara & Bharath, 2011) | KJ773301 |
| Poaceae (Poales) | Lolium temulentum L. | bearded darnel | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen (Rätsch, 2005) | KM538829 |
| Ranunculaceae (Ranunculales) | Aconitum spp. | monkshood | European, Indomalayan, Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | EU053898 |
| Ranunculaceae (Ranunculales) | Hydrastis canadensis L. | goldenseal | Native American (Foster & Duke, 2000) | Stimulant, sedative, analgesic (O’Mahony, 2010) | L75849 |
| Rubiaceae (Gentianales) | Catunaregam nilotica (Stapf) Tirveng. (=Randia nilotica Stapf) | chibra | Africa and Middle Eastern (Danjuma et al., 2014) | Antianxiety, antidepressant (Danjuma et al., 2014) | AJ286700 |
| Rubiaceae (Gentianales) | Coffea arabica L. | coffee | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant (Rätsch, 2005) | EF044213 |
| Rubiaceae (Gentianales) | Corynanthe spp. | pamprama | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant and aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AJ346977 |
| Rubiaceae (Gentianales) | Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil | kratom | Indomalaya (Idayu et al., 2011; Suhaimi et al., 2016) | Stimulant, analgesic, sedative (Rätsch, 2005; Suhaimi et al., 2016) | AJ346988 |
| Rubiaceae (Gentianales) | Pausinystalia johimbe (K.Schum.) Pierre ex Beille | yohimbe | African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, antidepressant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AJ346998 |
| Rubiaceae (Gentianales) | Psychotria spp. | chacruna | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | KJ805654 |
| Santalaceae (Santalales) | Santalum murrayanum C.A Gardner | sandalwood | Australasian (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | L26077 |
| Sapindaceae (Sapindales) | Paullinia spp. | guarana | Native American (McClatchey et al., 2009) | Stimulant (McClatchey et al., 2009) | AY724365 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Atropa belladonna L. | belladonna | European (Schultes, 1976) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | AJ316582 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Brugmansia spp. | angel’s trumpet | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | HM849829 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Brunfelsia spp. | raintree | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | AY206720 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Cestrum spp. | flowering jessamine | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | JX572398 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Datura spp. | toloache | Native American, Indomalayan, European (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | JX996059 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Duboisia spp. | pituri | Australasian (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, stimulant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | KM895868 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Hyoscyamus spp. | Henbane | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen. sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | KF248009 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Iochroma fuchsioides (Bonpl.) Miers | yas | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative (Rätsch, 2005) | KU310432 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Mandragora spp. | mandrake | European, African and Middle Eastern (Rätsch, 2005; Sayin, 2014) | Hallucinogen, sedative, analgesic, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005; Sayin, 2014) | U08614 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Nicotiana spp. | tobacco | Native American, Australasian (Vetulani, 2001; Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, antianxiety (Rätsch, 2005) | KU199713 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Petunia violacea Lindl. | shanin | Native American (Schultes, 1976) | Hallucinogen (Schultes, 1976) | HQ384915 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Physalis spp. | groundcherry | Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | KP295964 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Scopolia carniolica Jacq. | scopolia | European (Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | HQ216145 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Solandra spp. | arbol del viento | Native American (Knab, 1977; Rätsch, 2005) | Hallucinogen, aphrodisiac (Knab, 1977; Rätsch, 2005) | U08620 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Solanum spp. | nightshade | European, Native American (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative, analgesic (Rätsch, 2005) | KC535803 |
| Solanaceae (Solanales) | Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal | ashwagandha | Indomalayan (Rätsch, 2005) | Sedative, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | FJ914179 |
| Theaceae (Ericales) | Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze | tea | Temperate Asian (Rätsch, 2005) | Stimulant, aphrodisiac (Rätsch, 2005) | EU053898 |
| Urticaceae (Rosales) | Urtica urens L. | nettle | African and Middle Eastern (Doukkali et al., 2015) | Hallucinogen, antianxiety, sedative (O’Mahony, 2010; Doukkali et al., 2015) | KM361027 |