Table 1.
Current distribution and range of lethal yellowing-type diseases of palmsa.
| Location | Name | 16Sr Group | Host | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| AMERICAS | ||||
| Florida, USA Caribbean Basin (Antigua, Bahamas, Belize, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, St. Kitts & Nevis) | Coconut lethal yellowing (CLY) or lethal yellowing (LY) Candidatus Phytoplasma palmae (Ca P. palmae) | IV-A | Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), and 38 other palm species (Table 2). | Harrison et al., 1999, 2002a, 2008; Ntushelo et al., 2013c |
| Mexico, Honduras | Yucatan coconut lethal decline, lethal yellowing disease | IV-B | C. nucifera, Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) | Ashburner et al., 1996; Tymon et al., 1998; Cordova et al., 2003; Roca et al., 2006; Ntushelo et al., 2013c |
| Mexico, Texas and Florida, USA, Puerto Rico | Texas Phoenix palm decline (TPPD) C. palmata yellows (CPY) phytoplasma or Sabal mexicana lethal decline | IV-D | Phoenix canariensis, P. dactylifera, P. reclinata, P. roebelenii, P. sylvestria, Sabal palmetto, Syagrus romanzoffiana, Carludovica palmata, Sabal mexicana, Pseudophoenix sargentii, Pritchardia pacifica, Thrinaz radiata, Carpentaria acuminata, Caryota mitis, Roystonea sp. | Harrison et al., 2002b, 2009; Vázquez-Euán et al., 2011; Ntushelo et al., 2013c; Córdova et al., 2014 |
| Dominican Republic | CLY | IV-Ec | C. nucifera | Martinez et al., 2008; Ntushelo et al., 2013c; Córdova et al., 2014 |
| Florida | CLY | IV-F | Washingtonia robusta, Phoenix dactyliferad | Harrison et al., 2008; Ntushelo et al., 2013c |
| AFRICA | ||||
| Tanzania, Kenya | Coconut lethal disease (CLD) | IV-Ce | P. dactylifera C. nucifera | Tymon et al., 1998; Córdova et al., 2014 |
| Mozambique | CLD | IV-B IV-C XXII-A | C. nucifera | Córdova et al., 2014; Harrison et al., 2014; Bila et al., 2015a |
| bNigeria | Awka disease | XXII-A | C. nucifera | Ekpo and Ojomo, 1990; Tymon et al., 1998; Wei et al., 2007; Osagie et al., 2015 |
| bGhana, Côte d'Ivoire, Nigeria, Togo, Cameroon, Benin | Cape St. Paul wilt, CSPW Keta disease, Kaincopé, Kribi disease or Côte d'Ivoire lethal yellowing disease | XXII-B | C. nucifera | Dabek et al., 1976; Tymon et al., 1998; Makarova et al., 2012; Harrison et al., 2014; Osagie et al., 2015; Arocha-Rosete et al., 2015 |
| ASIA | ||||
| India | Kerala wilt disease | IV-C (disputed) | C. nucifera | Edwin and Mohankumar, 2007a Disputed by Manimekalai et al. (2010) and Mehdi et al. (2012) |
| India | Root (wilt) disease | XI-A XI-B XIV | C. nucifera | Manimekalai et al., 2014c; Yadav et al., 2015 |
| Sri Lanka | Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease (WCLWD) Ca. P.oryzae | XI | C. nucifera | Perera et al., 2012; Kumara et al., 2015 |
| Malaysia | Coconut yellow decline (CYD) Ca. P. cynodontis | XIV | C. nucifera | Nejat et al., 2009a,b |
| Malaysia | Ca. P. malaysianum | XXXII-B XXXII-C | C. nucifera E. guineensis | Nejat et al., 2013 |
| Indonesia | “Kalimantan wilt” and “Natuna wilt” Ca. P. oryzae | XI XIII | C. nucifera | Harries, 2005; Warokka et al., 2006 cited by Mehdi et al. (2012) |
| OCEANIA | ||||
| Papua New Guinea | Bogia coconut syndrome (BCS) Banana wilt associated phytoplasma (BWAP) | IV | C. nucifera Banana (Musa sp.) | Kelly et al., 2011; Pilotti et al., 2014; Davis et al., 2015 |
| Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands | Banana wilt associated phytoplasma (BWAP) | XXII-A | C. nucifera Bananas (Musa sp.)f | Davis et al., 2015 |
Similar tables can be found in earlier references including Bertaccini et al. (2014) and Mehdi et al. (2012). The classifications frequently change as new groups and subgroups are found and classified (Harrison et al., 2014).
Excludes 16Sr Group I and XI phytoplasmas which are associated with diseases affecting date palms (P. dactylifera) (Mehdi et al., 2012; Gurr et al., 2015).
Until the end of the 1990s, phytoplasmas associated with “maladie de Kaincopé” in Togo, “Awka wilt” in Nigeria and CSPWD in Ghana were thought to fall within the 16SrIV group (Tymon et al., 1998). Recently, they were included in a new group, 16SrXXII (Wei et al., 2007), incidentally cited as “Ca. P. cocosnigeriae,” where particularly the phytoplasma associated with “Awka wilt” was classified as a new subgroup designated to 16SrXXII-A (Tymon et al., 1998; IRPCM 2004). From Arocha-Rosete et al. (2014).
Subgroup 16SrIV-E is closely related to 16SrIV-B.
P. dactylifera was dual infected with 16SrIV-A (Ntushelo et al., 2013c).
Subgroup 16SrIV-C is quite distinct from other IV subgroups and is more closely related to western African groups (Ntushelo et al., 2013c)
Banana (a non-palm) included because a host shift by the phytoplasma is suspected from banana to coconut (Davis et al., 2015).