Table 3. Prevalence of CQ, PYR and SDX resistant marker genotypes in Malaysia reported from year 2003 to 2014.
| Sampling site | Year of sampling | Sampling method | Resistance | Genes | Codon mutations | Frequency (%) | Total sample | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lundu, Sarawak | 1999 and 2000 | PCD | CQ | pfcrt | K76T | 100.0 | 47/47 | Cox-Singh et al. 2003 [8] |
| PYR | pfdhfr | C59R/S108N | 19.0 | 6/47 | ||||
| PYR | pfdhfr | C59R/S108N/I164L | 78.0 | 25/47 | ||||
| Pahang districts | 2010–2011 | ACD/PCD | CQ | pfcrt | K76T | 52.0 | 39/75 | Atroosh et al. 2012 [9] |
| Kalabakan (Tawau), Sabah | 2008–2009 | ACD | CQ | pfcrt | K76T | 80.6 | 25/31 | Norahmad et al. 2011 [6] |
| PYR | pfdhfr | C59R/S108N | 3.2 | 1/31 | Abdullah et al. 2013 [5] | |||
| C59R/I164L | 22.6 | 7/31 | ||||||
| C59R/S108N/I164L | 51.6 | 16/31 | ||||||
| A16V/C59R/I164L | 3.2 | 1/31 | ||||||
| A16V/C59R/S108N/I164L | 3.2 | 1/31 | ||||||
| SDX | pfdhps | A437G/A581G | 74.2 | 23/31 | ||||
| Keningau/Nabawan, Sabah | 2010 | PCD | PYR | pfdhfr | C59R/S108N/I164L | 86.4 | 19/22 | Lau et al. 2013 [39] |
| N51I/C59R/S108N | 4.5 | 1/22 | ||||||
| C59R/S108N | 9.1 | 2/22 | ||||||
| SDX | pfdhps | A437G/K540T/A581G | 72.7 | 16/22 | ||||
| A437G | 9.1 | 2/22 | ||||||
| A437G/A581G | 13.6 | 3/22 | ||||||
| Kota Kinabalu, Sabah | 2012 | PCD | CQ | pfcrt | K76T | 93.3 | 14/15 | Tan et al. 2014 [35] |
| Keningau, Sabah | 2012 | PCD | CQ | pfcrt | K76T | 100 | 1/1 | |
| Kudat, Sabah | 2012 | PCD | CQ | pfcrt | K76T | 46.7 | 7/15 | |
| Kota Marudu (Kudat), Sabah | 2011 and 2014 | ACD | CQ | pfcrt | K76T | 6.9 | 2/29 | This study |
| PYR | pfdhfr | C59R/S108N | 89.7 | 26/29 | ||||
| C59R/S108N/I164L | 10.3 | 3/29 | ||||||
| SDX | pfdhps | A437G | 93.1 | 27/29 | ||||
| A437G/A581G | 6.9 | 2/29 |
ACD, active case detection; PCD, passive case detection; Pfcrt, Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistant gene; Pfdhfr, Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase gene; Pfdhps, Plasmodium falciparum dihydropteroate synthase gene; CQ, chloroquine; SDX, sulphadoxine; PYR, pyrimethamine. Amino acids: A, alanine; C, cysteine; G, glycine; I, isoleucine; K, lysine; L, leucine; N, asparagine; R, arginine; S, serine; T, threonine; V, valine. Bold fonts indicates strong determinant of resistance for each antimalarial drug.