Table 1.
General characteristics of study participants by sex.
| Variables | Total (n = 1393) | Men (n = 613) | Women (n = 780) | p-Value | Effect Size |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 71.35 ± 0.19 | 70.86 ± 0.23 | 71.75 ± 0.24 | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.05 ± 0.11 | 23.49 ± 0.14 | 24.49 ± 0.15 | <0.001 | 0.024 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 84.06 ± 0.33 | 85.09 ± 0.42 | 83.22 ± 0.43 | 0.001 | 0.012 |
| Low household income | 77.7 ± 1.7 (1052) | 72.9 ± 2.5 (443) | 81.5 ± 1.7 (609) | <0.001 | 0.69 |
| Urban residence | 79.9 ± 3.7 (962) | 72.5 ± 3.7 (437) | 67.9 ± 4.1 (525) | 0.056 | 0.051 |
| Current smoker | 12.3 ± 1.0 (164) | 23.1 ± 1.9 (141) | 3.6 ± 0.8 (23) | <0.001 | 0.323 |
| Alcohol drinker | 38.2 ± 1.6 (516) | 60.7 ± 2.4 (364) | 19.9 ± 1.7 (152) | <0.001 | 0.413 |
| Regular exercise | 40.6 ± 1.6 (576) | 48.7 ± 2.4 (306) | 34.1 ± 2.1 (270) | <0.001 | 0.153 |
| Alone at home | 16.8 ± 1.1 (271) | 6.9 ± 1.1 (47) | 24.8 ± 1.7 (224) | <0.001 | 0.263 |
| Hypertension | 87.0 ± 1.2 (740) | 82.6 ± 2.1 (287) | 90.4 ± 1.4 (453) | 0.002 | 0.107 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 55.8 ± 2.7 (244) | 49.1 ± 4.2 (112) | 62.4 ± 3.4 (132) | 0.019 | 0.070 |
| Dyslipidemia | 65.0 ± 2.5 (310) | 52.8 ± 4.2 (103) | 74.4 ± 2.8 (207) | <0.001 | 0.201 |
| Energy intake (kJ/day) | 7096 ± 114.72 | 8267 ± 155.72 | 6150 ± 114.13 | <0.001 | 0.104 |
| Sleep duration (h/day) | 6.79 ± 0.23 | 6.94 ± 0.12 | 6.68 ± 0.36 | 0.423 | 0.001 |
| 25-Hydroxyvitamin D (nmol/L) | 46.65 ± 0.72 | 47.90 ± 0.85 | 45.64 ± 0.92 | 0.032 | 0.004 |
| Hypovitaminosis D * | 15.8 ± 1.4 (207) | 12.6 ± 1.8 (69) | 18.3 ± 1.7 (138) | 0.013 | 0.096 |
| High stress † | 19.6 ± 1.4 (278) | 11.2 ± 1.5 (74) | 26.4 ± 2.1 (204) | <0.001 | 0.177 |
Data are presented as estimated means ± standard errors (%; unweighted number) for categorical variables or estimated means ± standard errors for continuous variables. p-values were obtained by Pearson’s chi-squared test for categorical variables or general linear model analysis for continuous variables using a complex sample design. Effect size was determined by partial eta squared or Cramer’s V. * Hypovitaminosis D was defined as a 25-Hydroxyvitamin D level < 30 nmol/L; † High stress (score of 3 or 4) was classified using a self-reported questionnaire using the following question: “During usual life activities, how much do you feel stressed?” (1 = almost no stress, 2 = a little stress, 3 = much stress, 4 = very much stress).