Figure 4.
(A) Schematics showing the geographical anatomy of a mature human heart. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 82, copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons. (B) Bioprinting of heart valves: (i) heart valve model designed by Solidworks; as-printed valve conduit; Safranin-O staining to stain the glycosaminoglycans red which also stained the Me-HA within the hydrogel red. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 95, copyright 2014 Elsevier. (ii) Heterogeneous aortic valve e-printing software sliced the geometries into layers and generated extrusion paths for each layer along with viable HAVIC-seeded valve scaffolds containing cells across the entire surface of the conduits. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 96, copyright 2013 Wiley-VCH. (C) Cardiac cells bioprinted in decelluarized cardiac extracellular matrix. Scale bars: 5 mm and 400 μm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 66, copyright 2014 Nature Publishing Group. (D) Bioprinting of the whole-heart structure: (i) A darkfield image of an explanted embryonic chick heart. (ii) A confocal fluorescence micrograph of the heart stained for fibronectin (green), nuclei (blue), and F-actin (red). (iii) The 3D CAD model of the heart with complex internal architecture based on the confocal data. (iv) A cross section of the 3D bioprinted heart showing recreation of the internal trabecular structure from the CAD model. (v) A dark-field image of the 3D printed heart with internal structure visible through the translucent heart wall. Scale bars: 1 mm in (i) and (ii) and 1 cm in (iii) and (iv). Reproduced with permission from Ref. 56, copyright 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science.