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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2018 Jan 1.
Published in final edited form as: Ageing Res Rev. 2016 Apr 30;33:89–104. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2016.04.006

Figure 4.

Figure 4

Factors causal to aging. Spontaneous errors in the mitochondrial replication machinery cause mtDNA damage. Accumulations of this mtDNA damage occur via clonal expansion until tissue specific heteroplasmy is reached and mitochondrial dysfunction is measurable. Increased mitochondrial dysfunction along with decreased mitochondrial dynamics leads to aging and age-related diseases. Mitochondrial dysfunction may also cause increased apoptosis, which is associated with aging. At low levels, ROS triggers stress response and biogenesis pathways and increases mitochondrial dynamics, which are protective and prevent aging. Caloric restriction and exercise functions similarly. Lastly, high levels of ROS can cause damage to cellular components, such as DNA, RNA, protein and lipids, which may also contribute to aging.