Table 1.
Clinical characteristics of the participants according to sex
| Total (n = 77) | Men (n = 33) | Women (n = 44) | P‐value men vs women | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 61.5 ± 10.4 | 63.8 ± 10.2 | 59.8 ± 10.3 | 0.101 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 24.2 ± 2.8 | 23.9 ± 2.6 | 24.5 ± 2.9 | 0.321 |
| DM duration (years) | 24.2 ± 2.8 | 20.8 ± 10.0 | 15.4 ± 8.4 | 0.012 |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 60.7 ± 7.1 | 61.7 ± 8.0 | 60.7 ± 7.1 | 0.304 |
| HbA1c (%) | 7.7 ± 0.7 | 7.8 ± 0.8 | 7.7 ± 0.7 | |
| 1.5‐AG (μmol/L) | 37.2 ± 17.7 | 37.1 ± 15.8 | 40.8 ± 17.7 | 0.020 |
| C‐peptide † (nmol/L) | 0.53 ± 0.36 | 0.39 ± 0.37 | 0.62 ± 0.33 | 0.008 |
| eGFR (mL/min/ 1.73 m2) | 68.1 ± 20.2 | 69.0 ± 23.1 | 67.5 ± 18.0 | 0.738 |
| Urine albumin/creatinine (mg/mmol) | 6.5 ± 19.8 | 3.7 ± 12.4 | 8.6 ± 23.8 | 0.282 |
| Retinopathy (%) (none/NPDR/PDR) | 50.0/37.1/12.9 | 40.0/43.3/16.7 | 57.5/32.5/10.0 | 0.336 |
| CVD (%) ‡ | 17.9 | 29.0 | 8.3 | 0.028 |
| Insulin users (%) | 71.4 | 75.8 | 68.2 | 0.466 |
| OAD (%) | 81.8 | 78.8 | 84.1 | 0.645 |
| MTF/SU/others § | 74.4/37.2/11.5 | 70.6/23.5/5.9 | 76.7/41.7/13.3 | |
| Total bilirubin and the range (μmol/L) | 11.80 ± 4.10 (1.71–23.95) | 13.17 ± 4.28 (4.13–23.95) | 10.95 ± 3.76 (1.71–20.52) | 0.018 |
| Hb (mmol/L) | 8.3 ± 0.9 | 8.8 ± 0.8 | 7.9 ± 0.7 | <0.001 |
| Albumin (g/L) | 43.0 ± 3.0 | 43.0 ± 3.0 | 43.0 ± 3.0 | 0.961 |
| AST (IU/L) | 25.9 ± 11.7 | 25.8 ± 13.1 | 26.0 ± 10.6 | 0.942 |
| ALT (IU/L) | 27.6 ± 17.5 | 27.1 ± 19.7 | 28.1 ± 15.8 | 0.800 |
| MAGE † (mmol/L) | 7.14 ± 2.75 | 8.06 ± 2.86 | 6.45 ± 2.48 | 0.010 |
| SD † (mmol/L) | 3.03 ± 1.08 | 3.26 ± 1.08 | 2.86 ± 1.05 | 0.086 |
| CONGA‐6 † (mmol/L) | 2.53 ± 0.90 | 2.74 ± 0.90 | 2.36 ± 0.87 | 0.045 |
| M100 † | 23.0 ± 15.8 | 25.7 ± 15.9 | 20.9 ± 15.5 | 0.070 |
| J‐index † | 50.0 ± 19.3 | 54.5 ± 19.3 | 46.7 ± 18.9 | 0.050 |
| MPMG † (mmol/L) | 13.11 ± 2.66 | 13.47 ± 2.39 | 12.84 ± 2.85 | 0.232 |
| AUC‐180 † (mmol/L day) | 1.12 ± 0.95 | 1.27 ± 0.96 | 1.00 ± 0.95 | 0.144 |
| MBG † (mmol/L) | 9.16 ± 1.72 | 9.51 ± 1.48 | 8.89 ± 1.85 | 0.077 |
Data are mean ± standard deviation for continuous variables. For frequency data, chi square‐test was applied. †Log‐transformed values were used for analysis. ‡Only available in 67 persons, 12 patients had cardiovascular disease. §Including α‐glucosidase inhibitors, thiazolidinediones, nateglinides, a dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 inhibitor and a glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) receptor agonist. 1,5‐AG, 1,5‐anhydroglucitol; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; AUC‐180, area under the curve for glucose above 180 mg/dL; BMI, body mass index; CONGA‐6, continuous overlapping net glycemic action calculated with 6‐h time intervals; CVD, cardiovascular disease; DM, diabetes mellitus; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; Hb, hemoglobin; M100, a measure of the stability of the glucose excursions in comparison with glucose value of 5.55 mmol/L (100 mg/dL); MAGE, mean amplitude of glycemic excursions; MBG, mean blood glucose; MTF, metformin; MPMG, mean post‐meal maximum glucose; NPDR, non proliferative diabetic retinopathy; PDR, proliferative diabetic retinopathy; SD, standard deviation; SU, sulfonylurea.