Flow chart of study subjects. The italicized analyses listed at the bottom of the figure (with dashed arrows) highlight the statistical comparisons that are conducted with each comparator group. V-Code, an ICD-9 code associated with a procedure alone without an associated diagnosis (e.g., infusion therapy); Top-Decile Sepsis Volume, hospital in the top decile of inpatient sepsis volume; Sepsis-Capable ED, an emergency department that (1) is not a federally-designated critical access hospital, (2) has an intensive care unit, and (3) has an ED volume above the 25th percentile in state data; ED, emergency department.