Table 2.
Effects of fermented red ginseng on pharmacokinetics of probe drugs and their metabolites
| Analyte | Pharmacokinetic parameter | n | Geometric mean | Geometric mean ratio, After FRG: Before FRG (90% CI) | CV w (%) | P‐value b | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| After FRG | Before FRG | ||||||
| Caffeine | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 6206.203 | 6193.919 | 1.002 (0.857–1.171) | 24.60 | 0.4212 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 0.500 | 0.500 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.5024 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 51314.971 | 45481.292 | 1.128 (0.997–1.277) | 19.39 | 0.2524 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 57490.588 | 49335.031 | 1.165 (1.002–1.356) | 23.87 | 0.2293 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 6.939 | 5.497 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.0181 | |
| Paraxanthine | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 1464.896 | 1496.824 | 0.979 (0.906–1.057) | 11.97 | 0.9014 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 6.000 | 8.000 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.4058 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 24561.395 | 24151.161 | 1.017 (0.943–1.096) | 11.70 | 0.8469 | |
| AUCinf (h∙ng ml−1) | 15 | 53877.894 | 37622.878 | 1.432 (1.125–1.823) | 38.90 | 0.0479 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 20.703 | 11.846 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.0067 | |
| Losartan | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 201.357 | 206.740 | 0.974 (0.797–1.190) | 31.97 | 0.9668 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 1.500 | 1.500 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.4883 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 541.687 | 516.699 | 1.048 (0.887–1.239) | 26.45 | 0.4212 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 548.613 | 523.857 | 1.047 (0.887–1.237) | 26.31 | 0.3894 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 1.940 | 1.861 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.8469 | |
| EXP3174 | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 387.657 | 466.072 | 0.832 (0.694–0.997) | 28.76 | 0.2769 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 4.000 | 3.000 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.2500 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 2500.060 | 3082.080 | 0.811 (0.684–0.963) | 27.09 | 0.0413 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 2613.067 | 3212.424 | 0.813 (0.687–0.963) | 26.76 | 0.0479 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 5.079 | 4.924 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.1514 | |
| Losartan | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 201.357 | 206.740 | 0.974 (0.797–1.190) | 31.97 | 0.9668 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 1.500 | 1.500 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.4883 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 541.687 | 516.699 | 1.048 (0.887–1.239) | 26.45 | 0.4212 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 548.613 | 523.857 | 1.047 (0.887–1.237) | 26.31 | 0.3894 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 1.940 | 1.861 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.8469 | |
| EXP3174 | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 387.657 | 466.072 | 0.832 (0.694–0.997) | 28.76 | 0.2769 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 4.000 | 3.000 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.2500 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 2500.060 | 3082.080 | 0.811 (0.684–0.963) | 27.09 | 0.0413 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 2613.067 | 3212.424 | 0.813 (0.687–0.963) | 26.76 | 0.0479 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 5.079 | 4.924 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.1514 | |
| Omeprazole | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 512.797 | 574.698 | 0.892 (0.747–1.066) | 28.18 | 0.3894 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 3.000 | 2.000 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.0488 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 1257.700 | 1351.108 | 0.931 (0.812–1.067) | 21.47 | 0.3894 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 1281.690 | 1369.503 | 0.936 (0.819–1.069) | 20.89 | 0.3894 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 1.215 | 1.186 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.8040 | |
| 5‐hydroxyomeprazole | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 75.583 | 80.007 | 0.945 (0.859–1.039) | 14.90 | 0.3373 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 3.000 | 3.000 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.0283 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 239.033 | 244.051 | 0.979 (0.918–1.045) | 10.04 | 0.2769 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 283.859 | 270.368 | 1.050 (0.961–1.147) | 13.82 | 0.7615 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 2.716 | 1.971 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.1070 | |
| Dextromethorphan | C max (ng ml−1) | 13 | 3.421 | 4.032 | 0.849 (0.688–1.047) | 30.77 | 0.0398 |
| t max (h)a | 13 | 2.000 | 2.000 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.3438 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 13 | 17.140 | 18.890 | 0.907 (0.681–1.209) | 42.86 | 0.7354 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 11 | 43.514 | 50.077 | 0.869 (0.638–1.184) | 41.79 | 0.4131 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 11 | 7.006 | 7.540 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.4648 | |
| Dextrorphan | C max (ng ml−1) | 13 | 12.005 | 11.721 | 1.024 (0.876–1.198) | 22.72 | 0.7998 |
| t max (h)a | 13 | 2.000 | 2.000 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.1309 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 13 | 60.260 | 57.742 | 1.044 (0.926–1.176) | 17.20 | 0.4973 | |
| AUCinf (h∙ng ml−1) | 13 | 66.148 | 63.497 | 1.042 (0.932–1.164) | 15.98 | 0.7869 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 13 | 3.432 | 3.920 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.7869 | |
| Midazolam | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 43.618 | 49.950 | 0.873 (0.732–1.041) | 27.84 | 0.2769 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 0.500 | 0.500 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.0391 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 118.749 | 102.676 | 1.157 (1.022–1.309) | 19.38 | 0.0637 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 125.665 | 110.472 | 1.138 (1.007–1.285) | 19.08 | 0.0833 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 2.955 | 3.304 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.3591 | |
| 1‐hydroxymidazolam | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 42.235 | 56.292 | 0.750 (0.583–0.966) | 40.86 | 0.0754 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 0.517 | 0.500 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.1758 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 69.474 | 73.587 | 0.944 (0.805–1.107) | 25.09 | 0.6387 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 74.221 | 80.311 | 0.924 (0.791–1.080) | 24.63 | 0.4543 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 0.678 | 0.728 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.5614 | |
| Fexofenadine | C max (ng ml−1) | 15 | 84.767 | 71.851 | 1.180 (0.979–1.422) | 29.62 | 0.2583 |
| t max (h)a | 15 | 2.000 | 2.000 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.7771 | |
| AUClast (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 594.590 | 449.875 | 1.322 (1.112–1.571) | 27.33 | 0.0181 | |
| AUCinf (h ng ml−1) | 15 | 611.566 | 467.806 | 1.307 (1.110–1.540) | 25.86 | 0.0181 | |
| t 1/2 (h) | 15 | 4.725 | 4.899 | ‐ | ‐ | 0.4543 | |
Values are presented by geometric mean and geometric mean ratio (90% CI)
AUCinf, area under the plasma concentration–time curve from 0 extrapolated to infinity; AUClast, area under the plasma concentration–time curve from time 0 to the last measurable time; CI, confidence interval; C max, maximum plasma concentration; CVw, intra‐individual coefficient of variation; FRG, fermented red ginseng; P‐gp, P‐glycoprotein; t 1/2, elimination half‐life; t max, time to maximum plasma concentration
a
t max was presented by median
b
Wilcoxon Signed‐Rank test