Table 1.
Psychobiotics in Rodent Models of Dysfunction
| Model | Induction | Psychobiotic | Species | Effects relative to comparison groups | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alzheimer's disease | A β1–42-induced neurotoxicity | Prebiotic, chitosan oligosaccharide | Male Sprague–Dawley rats (n = 12) | ↑ Cognitive function (Morris water maze), ↓ pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β) | [135] |
| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis | High level of mutant human SOD1G93A gene | Prebiotic, galacto-oligosaccharides | Male transgenic ALZ mice (n = 12) | ↓ Motor neuron death, ↓ muscular atrophy, ↑ serum folate, ↑ vitamin B12, ↑ homocysteine | [136] |
| Autism spectrum disorder | Maternal immune activation | Probiotic, Bacteroides fragilis | Offspring of pregnant C57BL/6N mice (n = 9–75/group) | ↑ Intestinal permeability, ↓ pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6), ↓ anxiety (open field test), ↓ repetitive behaviour (marble burying), ↑ communication (calling), ↑ sensorimotor gating (startle inhibition) | [137] |
| Bacterial infection | Citrobacter rodentium–induced colitis | Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus R0011 + Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 | Female C57BL/6 mice (n = 4–16/group) | ↑ Gut barrier function, ↓ transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumour necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ, interleukin-17), ↑ transcription of anti-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-10), normalisation of microbiome | [138] |
| Bacterial infection | Citrobacter rodentium–induced colitis | Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus R0011 + Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 | Neonatal C57BL/6 mice (n = 4–27/group) | ↓ Infection-induced death, ↓ infection-induced weight loss | [139] |
| Bacterial infection | Citrobacter rodentium–induced colitis | Probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri | Male CD1 mice (n = 105, experiment 1; n = 66, experiment 2) | ↓ Stress-induced gut-to-spleen pathogen migration | [140] |
| Bacterial infection | Citrobacter rodentium–induced colitis | Probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri | Male C57BL/6 mice (n = 9/group) | ↓ Stress-induced infectious colitis | [141] |
| Diabetes | Streptozotocin injection | Probiotics, Lactobacillus acidophilus + Bifidobacterium lactis + Lactobacillus fermentum | Male Wistar rats (n = 10/group) | ↑ Cognitive function (Morris water maze), ↑ hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) | [142] |
| Diabetes | Streptozotocin injection | Probiotics, Lactobacillus brevis DPC 6108 | Male Sprague–Dawley rats (n = 10–15/group) | ↓ Glucose, ↓ hyperglycaemia | [143] |
| Hyperammonemia | Ammonium acetate injection | Probiotic, Lactobacillus helveticus NS8 | Male Sprague–Dawley rats (n = 6/group) | ↓ Inflammation (brain-inducible nitric oxide synthase, prostaglandin E2, and interleukin-1β), neurotransmitter processing (↓ abnormal metabolisation of serotonin into 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid), ↓ anxiety (elevated plus maze), ↑ cognitive function (Morris water maze) | [144] |
| Post-inflammatory anxiety | Lipopolysaccharide injection | Prebiotic, Bimuno-galacto-oligosaccharides (B-GOS) | Male CD1 mice (n = 15/group) | ↓ Pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1β), ↓ cortical 5-HT2A receptors | [145] |