Table 2.
Growth factors in response to mechanical or physical stress on different tissues.
| Growth factor | Native cells | Experimental condition (expansion or stress) | Effect on growth factor | Major observations | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Epidermal growth factor (EGF) | Macrophages, Fibroblasts | Burn injuries | ↑ | Keratinocyte proliferation and migration | Grayson et al., 1993 |
| 2 mm incisional wounds on the PU.1 null mouse | ↑ | Reepithelialisation | Martin et al., 2003 | ||
| Heparin-binding epidermal growth factor (HB-EGF) | Macrophages | Keratinocyte-specific HB-EGF-deficient mice | ↓ | Wound closure was markedly impaired | Shirakata et al., 2005 |
| Cells treated with tetracycline (TET) | ↑↑ | Overexpression of HB-EGF inhibits proliferation | Stoll et al., 2012 | ||
| Fibroblast growth factor 1, 2, and 4 (FGF 1, 2, and 4) | Fibroblasts, Macrophages, Endothelial cells, Smooth muscle cells, Chondrocytes, Mast cells | Cultured fibroblasts stimulated with IL-1α | ↑ | Fibroblast proliferation Angiogenesis | Maas-Szabowski and Fusenig, 1996 |
| Transforming growth factor-α (TGF-α) | Macrophages, Keratinocytes | Macrophages isolated from a wound site | ↑ | Keratinocyte migration and reepithelialisation | Rappolee et al., 1988 |
| Transforming growth factor-β1-3 (TGF-β1-3) | Macrophages, Fibroblasts, Keratinocytes, Neutrophils | Adult and fetal wounds | II ↑ |
Reepithelialisation of skin Epidermal differentiation | Cowin et al., 2001a |
| Fetal and adult sheep incisional skin wounding | ↑ | TGF-β3 is anti-scarring | Scheid et al., 2002 | ||
| Amphiregulin (AR) | Keratinocytes | Serum free cultured human keratinocytes | ↑ | Keratinocyte proliferation | Piepkorn et al., 1994 |
| Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF or FGF7) | Fibroblasts | Wounded mice skin | ↓ | Delayed re-epithelialization due to reduced proliferation rate of epidermal keratinocytes | Werner et al., 1994 |
| Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) | Macrophages, Endothelial cells | Acute incisional wounds in an aging mouse colony | ↓ | The low levels of PDGF in the old cause initial delay in fibroblasts and inflammatory cell infiltration and proliferation within the wounds | Ashcroft et al., 1997 |
| Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) | Mesenchymal cells, Hepatocytes, Adipocytes, Keratinocytes | Adult rat excisional wounds | ↑ | Keratinocyte migration, and proliferation Angiogenesis | Cowin et al., 2001b |
| Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) | Neutrophils, Macrophages, Endothelial cells, Fibroblasts, | Immobilized VEGF in porous collagen scaffold | ↑ | Endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis | Shen et al., 2008 |
| Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) | Fibroblasts, Endothelia | Scratched human corneal epithelial cells | ↑ | CTGF is strongly induced and caused pathophysiology in tissues by inducing matrix deposition, conversion of fibroblasts into contractile myofibroblasts | Secker et al., 2008 |
| Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) | Fibroblasts, neutrophils, macrophages, hepatocytes and skeletal muscle | Estrogen-deprived mice | ↑ | Keratinocyte and fibroblast proliferation and migration Collagen synthesis and re-epithelialization | Emmerson et al., 2012 |
| Rat surgical incision | ↑ | Re-epithelization | Todorovic et al., 2008 | ||
| Interleukin-I α and β (IL-I α and β) | Neutrophils, Monocytes, Macrophages, Keratinocytes | Irradiated fibroblasts | ↑ | Keratinocyte activation, migration and proliferation Induce KGF expression and fibroblasts creation | Maas-Szabowski et al., 2000 |
| Endothelin-I (ET-I) | Keratinocytes, Fibroblasts, Endothelial cells | Cyclic stretch of cultured rat aortic smooth muscle cells (raSMC) and porcine aortic endothelial cells (PAEC) | ↑ (PAEC) ↓ (raSMC) |
Reveal central role for the endothelin system in stretch-induced apoptosis of the smooth muscle cells. ET-1 binding to the ETB receptor subtype results in apoptosis rather than proliferation | Cattaruzza et al., 2000, 2001. |
| Activin | Keratinocytes, Fibroblasts, Inflammatory cells, Macrophages | Normal and wounded skin | ↑ | Stimulates keratinocyte migration, fibroplasia, and matrix production | Hübner et al., 1996 |
↑, increased in response to mechanical strain; ↓, decreased in response to mechanical strain; ↑↑, overexpression in response to mechanical strain; II, unchanged in response to mechanical strain.