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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2016 Nov 16.
Published in final edited form as: J Autism Dev Disord. 2016 Mar;46(3):1071–1083. doi: 10.1007/s10803-015-2655-7

Table 1.

Review of studies examining executive functioning in adults with autism spectrum disorder

Study N Age (years) Sex ratio: M/F Mean IQ Matching criteria EF measures EF domains ASD impaired compared to TD/Othera
Rumsey (1985) ASD: 9
TD: 10		 ASD: 27
TD: 28		 ASD: 9/0
TD: 10/0		 ASD FSIQ: 104
TD FSIQ: 113		 Highest level of education WCST Flexibility Y
Rumsey and Hamburger (1988) ASD: 10
TD: 10		 ASD: 26
TD: 28		 ASD: 10/0
TD: 10/0		 ASD VIQ: 103
ASD PIQ: 104
TD VIQ: 113
TD PIQ: 111		 Age
Sex
IQ
Level of education
Headedness		 Trail making test Part B
WCST		 Flexibility
Flexibility		 Y
Y
Rumsey and Hamburger (1990) ASD: 10
Dyslexic: 15
TD: 25		 ASD: 26
Dyslexic: 22
TD: 24		 ASD: 10/0
Dyslexic: 15/0
TD: 25/0		 ASD FSIQ: 96
Dyslexic FSIQ: 104
TD FSIQ: 107		 Age
Sex
Level of education
Headedness		 WCST
Word fluency		 Flexibility
Generativity		 Y/Yb
Y/N
Goldstein et al. (2002) ASD: 31
Schizophrenia: 80		 ASD: 21
Schizophrenia
High functioning: 40
Moderately impaired: 42
Severely impaired: 48
Severe psychomotor: 43		 ASD: not reported
Schizophrenia: 80/0		 ASD:
VIQ: 102
PIQ: 97
FSIQ: 100
Schizophrenia
High functioning:
VIQ: 102
PIQ: 98
FSIQ: 99
Moderately impaired:
VIQ: 92
PIQ: 87
FSIQ: 89
Severely impaired:
VIQ: 85
PIQ: 81
FSIQ: 82
Severe psychomotor:
VIQ: 102
PIQ: 77
FSIQ: 80		 Verbal and Full Scale IQ scores of 70 or higher Trail Making Test Part B
WCST		 Flexibility
Flexibility		 N/N/N/Nc
N/N/N/N
Lopez et al. (2005) ASD: 17
TD: 17		 ASD: 29.0
TD: 29.0		 ASD: 14/3
TD: 11/6		 ASD FSIQ: 77
TD FSIQ: 89		 Age
Sex
PIQ		 Design Fluency
LNS
Tower-DKEFS
The California Stroop test
Verbal fluency
WCST		 Generativity
Working Memory
Planning
Inhibition
Generativity
Flexibility		 Y
N
Y
N
N
Y
Williams et al. (2005) ASD: 31
TD: 25		 ASD: 26.6
TD: 26.8		 ASD: 29/2
TD: 21/4		 ASD FSIQ: 107
TD FSIQ: 110		 Age
Sex
IQ		 Letter-number sequencing
N-Back
Spatial span		 Working Memory
Working Memory
Working memory		 N
N
Y
Ambery et al. (2006) ASD: 27
TD: 20		 ASD: 37.6
TD: 33.5		 ASD: 22/5
TD: 16/4		 ASD
VIQ: 106
PIQ: 104
TD
VIQ: 107
PIQ: 109		 Age
Sex
VIQ
PIQ
Years of education		 COWAT
Stroop test
WCST		 Generativity
Inhibition
Flexibility		 Y
N
Y
Hill and Bird (2006) ASD: 22
TD: 22		 ASD: 31.1
TD: 33.5		 ASD: 16/6
TD: 14/8		 ASD FSIQ: 110
TD FSIQ: 108		 Age
Sex
IQ		 MCST
Stroop Test
Trail making test Part B
Verbal fluency		 Flexibility
Inhibition
Flexibility
Generativity		 N
N
N
N
Nakahachi et al. (2006) ASD: 16
TD: 28		 ASD: 28.0
TD: 28.3		 ASD: 12/4
TD: 21/7		 ASD FSIQ: 101
TD FSIQ: 103		 Age
Sex
IQ		 ATMT
Digit span		 Flexibility
Working memory		 N
N
Barnard et al. (2008) ASD + ID: 20
ID: 23		 ASD + ID: 18–45 years
ID: 18–45 years		 ASD + ID: 20/0
ID: 23/0		 ASD + ID:
VIQ: 68
PIQ: 69
FSIQ: 67
ID:
VIQ: 69
PIQ: 71
FSIQ: 69		 Chronological age
VIQ
PIQ
FSIQ		 COWAT
Knock and tap task
Mazes task
MCST
Non-verbal fluency (from NEPSY)
Spatial Span Task
Tower of London Test
Verbal Conflict Task		 Generativity
Inhibition
Planning
Flexibility
Generativity
Working memory
Planning
Inhibition		 N
N
Y
N
N
Y
Y
N
Towgood et al. (2009) ASD: 21
TD: 22		 ASD: 31.76
TD: 30.64		 ASD: 17/4
TD: 18/4		 ASD FSIQ: 116
TD FSIQ: 118		 Age
Sex		 CET
COWAT
Hayling Test
MCST
Proverbs subtest (from DKEFS)
Six Elements subtests (from BADS)
Trail Making Test Part B
Zoo Map (from BADS)		 Multiple
Generativity
Inhibition
Flexibility
Flexibility
Planning
Flexibility
Planning		 N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Nydén et al. (2010) ASD: 55
ADHD: 73
ASD/ADHD: 33		 ASD: 32.02
ADHD: 33.18
ASD/ADHD: 32.37		 ASD: 38/17
ADHD: 39/34
ASD/ADHD: 20/13		 ASD FSIQ: 98
ADHD FSIQ: 93
ASD/ADHD FSIQ: 92		 Age
Sex		 TOVA
Tower of London Test		 Inhibition
Planning		 N/Nd
N/N
Johnston et al. (2011) ASD: 24
ADHD: 24
TD: 14		 ASD: 27.8
ADHD: 27.3
TD: 28.7		 ASD: 19/5
ADHD: 19/5
TD: 10/4		 ASD VIQ: 102
ADHD VIQ: 98
TD VIQ: 108		 Age
Sex
VIQ		 Hayling Test
MFF
Stroop Test		 Inhibition
Inhibition
Inhibition		 Y/Ye
N/N
N/N
Geurts and Vissers (2012) ASD: 23
TD: 23		 ASD: 63.6
TD: 63.7		 ASD: 18/5
TD: 18/5		 ASD:
DART-IQ: 110
TD
DART-IQ: 110		 Age
Sex
Estimated IQ and educational level		 COWAT
Modified WCST
SART
Spatial Span Subtest
Trail Making Test Part B
The Tower of London of the Drexel University		 Generativity
Flexibility
Attention
Working memory
Flexibility
Planning		 Y
N
Y
Y
N
N
Lai et al. (2012) ASD: 17
TD: 17		 ASD: 27.2
TD: 28.3		 ASD: 14/3
TD: 11/6		 ASD VIQ: 73
ASD FSIQ: 77
TD VIQ: 92
TD FSIQ: 89		 Age
PIQ		 F-A-S
Go/No-Go		 Generativity
Inhibition		 N
Y
Sachse et al. (2013) ASD: 30
TD: 28		 ASD: 19.2
TD: 19.9		 ASD IQ: 105
TD ID: 109		 Age
Sex
Non-verbal IQ		 ID/ED
Stroop Test
Stockings of Cambridge
SWM		 Flexibility
Inhibition
Planning
Working memory		 Y
N
N
N
Wilson et al. (2014) ASD: 89
TD: 89		 ASD: 26
TD: 28		 ASD: 89/0
TD: 89/0		 ASD
FSIQ: 110
VIQ: 110
PIQ: 108
TD
FSIQ: 114
VIQ: 109
PIQ: 116		 Sex
IQ		 F-A-S
TOVA		 Generativity
Attention		 N
N

N sample size, EF executive function, ASD autism spectrum disorder, TD typically developing, ID intellectual disability, VIQ verbal intelligence quotient, PIQ performance intelligence quotient, FSIQ full scale intelligence quotient, WCST Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, COWAT Controlled Oral Word Association Test, SART Sustained Attention to Response Test, CANTAB Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, IED Intradimensional/extradimensional set shifting task, SWM spatial working memory, DART Dutch Adult Reading Test IQ, MCST Modified Card Sorting Task, MFF Matching familiar figures test, BADS Behavioral Assessment of Dysexecutive Syndrome, ADHD attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, DKEFS Delis Kaplan Executive function scale, CET Cognitive elimination test, F-A-S word generativity task, LNS letter number sequencing, ATMT advanced trail making task, TOVA test of variables of attention, HFA high functioning autism, RTC mean reaction time of correct answers, RTE mean reaction time incorrect “no” responses, RTE + 1 Mean reaction time post-error responses

a

This column refers to whether there is an impairment reported for the ASD group relative to the comparison group(s). The possibilities are: Y = yes differences are reported for particular domain(s)/EF test(s); N = no differences are reported for particular domain(s)/EF test(s)

b

First comparison is between ASD and TD and the second comparison is between ASD and the dyslexic group (e.g., Y/N means ASD group exhibited deficits compared to TD and Y/Y means ASD exhibited deficits relative to both groups

c

First comparison is between ASD and moderate schizophrenia, second comparison is between ASD and high functioning schizophrenia, third comparison is between ASD and severely impaired schizophrenia, fourth comparison is between ASD and severe psychomotor schizophrenia (e.g., N/N/N/N means ASD group did not exhibit deficits compared to all four groups)

d

First comparison is between ASD and ADHD, second comparison is between ASD ASD/ADHD. Comparisons between both groups do not indicate deficits

e

First comparison is between ASD and TD and second comparison is between ASD and ADHD (e.g., Y/Y means ASD group exhibited unique deficits relative to both groups, while Y/N means ASD group exhibited deficits compared to TD but was not different from ADHD group)