Table 3.

Nanoparticle- and microbubble-based systems for DVT.

System	Application	Advantages	Limitations	Ref
GNQEQVSPLTLLK and GPRPPGGSKGC conjugated iron oxide nanoparticles	FXIII and fibrin targeting, MRI via Vivo Tag 680 and optical imaging Cy7	Multifunctional capability and improved binding to thrombi	Complicated imagery systems; some level of in vivo toxicity	43
Lipid based perfluorocarbon and Gd-DTPA complex conjugated with anti-fibrin antibodies	Targeting of cell aggregates expressing fibrin	Improved signal contrast, ion and particle relaxivity, and enhanced detectability	–	46 – 48
Biotinylated phospholipid perfluorocarbon nanoparticles	Molecular imaging of thrombi	Enhanced echogenicity, acoustic contrast and target specificity	–	49
ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 conjugated microbubbles	Ultrasound imaging of thrombi	Successful targeting of thrombi	–	24, 27
Abciximab conjugated phospholipid microbubbles	Molecular imaging of clots by steady binding to platelets	Specific contrast administration and targeting of platelets	–	51, 52
MRX-408 incorporated aerosome microbubble	Ultrasound imaging of thrombi	Efficient targeting and improved enhancement	Microbubble concentration dependent contrast enhancement	27, 53
PEGylated polyamidoamine dendrimeric nanocarriers	Thrombi clearance with increased half-life of LMWH	Improved pulmonary absorption and bioavailability of heparin	–	54, 55
Polyester/polycationic polymethacrylate nanoparticles	Oral delivery of LMWH and Tinzaparin for thrombi treatment	Enhanced availability and overcomes drug–drug interaction	Rapid clearance of small sized and no functionalized nanoparticles	56, 57