Table 2.

Effects of filarial nematodes during pregnancy

Species	Adult worm infection site	Direct effects on host	Effects on coinfection	Effects on infant
Wuchereria bancrofti	Lymphatic system	Elephantiasis in hyperresponsive individuals	Little effect on HIV121 Unclear or mixed effects on malaria48	Reduced odds of low birth weight with infection66 Increased maternal/infant HIV transmission60 Helminth-specific T-cell immunity and lower IFN-γ response to tuberculosis73,79 Lower response to W. bancrofti antigen 17–19 years later85 Increased infection in tolerant, but not sensitized children74 Increased infection in children of infected mothers80,84
Onchocerca volvulus	Subcutaneous tissue	Onchocerciasis (river blindness)		Children of infected mothers are also more likely to be infected78,83 Children of infected mothers have higher T2H cytokines and lower TH1 cytokines78 Possible in utero transmission72
Mansonella perstans	Serous body cavities	Generally mild or asymptomatic, but occasional symptoms may occur122	Higher malaria parasitemia36 andprevalence47	Maternal infection associated with higher IL-10 to BCG and tetanus immunogens75

Abbreviations: IFN-γ, interferon-γ; IL-10, interleukin-10; BCG, bacillus Calmette–Guérin; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus.