TABLE 2.
Trajectory-group descriptions1
| Group, % of total cohort |
|||||
| A, 21.4 (19.4, 23.4) | B, 31.3 (28.9, 33.8) | C, 24.3 (22.25, 26.4) | D, 23.0 (20.8, 25.1) | P | |
| Vitamin A treatment arm,2 % | |||||
| Maternal treatment–infant treatment | 25.1 (21.6, 28.6) | 24.7 (21.8, 27.7) | 26.4 (22.9, 29.9) | 24.2 (20.9, 27.5) | 0.82 |
| Maternal treatment–infant placebo | 24.5 (21, 27.9) | 24.5 (21.4, 27.5) | 23.3 (20, 26.5) | 25.6 (22.1, 29.1) | 0.76 |
| Maternal placebo–infant treatment | 25.7 (22.2, 29.3) | 24.9 (22.0, 27.8) | 24.7 (21.4, 28.0) | 24.2 (20.8, 27.6) | 0.85 |
| Maternal placebo–infant placebo | 24.7 (21.2, 28.2) | 25.9 (23.0, 28.7) | 25.7 (22.2, 29.2) | 26 (22.5, 29.5) | 0.88 |
| Maternal age, y | 24.2 (23.8, 24.6) | 24.2 (23.9, 24.6) | 24.2 (23.8, 24.7) | 24.0 (23.5, 24.4) | 0.75 |
| Maternal education, y | 10.0 (9.9, 10.2)C,D | 9.8 (9.7, 10.0)C,D | 9.6 (9.4, 9.7)A,B | 9.5 (9.3, 9.6)A,B | <0.01 |
| Maternal height, cm | 162.4 (161.7, 163.0)B–D | 160.4 (159.9, 160.9)A,C,D | 159.3 (158.7, 159.9)A,B | 158.5 (158.0, 159.1)A,B | <0.01 |
| Maternal MUAC, cm | 26.3 (26.0, 26.6)C,D | 26.1 (25.9, 26.3)C,D | 25.6 (25.4, 25.9)A,B | 25.7 (25.4, 25.9)A,B | <0.01 |
| Cesarean delivery, % | 7.6 (5.4, 9.8) | 10.1 (8.2, 12.1) | 6.5 (4.5, 8.5) | 9.2 (6.9, 11.5) | 0.07 |
| Time since last birth,3 y | 4.3 (4.1, 4.5) | 4.4 (4.2, 4.6) | 4.3 (4.1, 4.5) | 4.3 (4.1, 4.5) | 0.81 |
| Children, n | 1.9 (1.8, 2.0) | 2, 0 (1.9, 2.1) | 2.0 (1.9, 2.1) | 2.0 (1.9, 2.2) | 0.26 |
| Parity, % | |||||
| Primiparous | 50.4 (46.2, 54.5) | 50.3 (47, 53.6) | 48.6 (44.5, 52.7) | 49.4 (45.4, 53.4) | 0.88 |
| Multiparous (2–3) | 39.1 (35.0, 43.1) | 36.6 (33.4, 39.9) | 38.7 (34.8, 42.5) | 35.9 (32.1, 39.7) | 0.56 |
| Multiparous (≥4) | 10.6 (8.0, 13.1) | 13.1 (10.9, 15.2) | 12.7 (10.2, 15.3) | 14.7 (12.0, 17.4) | 0.20 |
| Paternal education, y | 10.8 (10.7, 10.9)C,D | 10.7 (10.6, 10.8) | 10.5 (10.4, 10.6)A | 10.5 (10.4, 10.7)A | <0.01 |
| Infant sex, M, % | 45.6 (41.5, 49.7)C,D | 48.7 (45.2, 52.1)D | 53.9 (50.0, 57.7)A | 60.1 (56.3, 63.8)A,B | <0.01 |
| Gestational age, wk | 39.2 (39.1, 39.3)C,D | 39.1 (39.0, 39.2)C,D | 38.8 (38.7, 38.97)A,B | 38.7 (38.6, 38.8)A,B | <0.01 |
| Term and AGA, % | 94.3 (92.1, 96.5)B–D | 88.2 (86.0, 90.4)A,C,D | 81.1 (77.7, 84.5)A,B,D | 70.4 (66.8, 73.9)A–C | <0.01 |
| Preterm and AGA, % | 2.7 (1.2, 4.3)C,D | 7.2 (5.5, 9.0) | 11.1 (8.5, 13.7)A | 19.4 (16.5, 22.4)A | <0.01 |
| Term and SGA, % | 2.9 (1.5, 4.4)B–D | 4.6 (3.2, 6.0)A,D | 7.5 (5.4, 9.6)A,D | 8.5 (6.3, 10.8)A–C | <0.01 |
| Preterm and SGA, % | 0.0 (0.0, 0.1) | 0.1 (0.0, 0.2)D | 0.3 (0.0, 0.8) | 1.6 (0.7, 2.6)B | <0.01 |
| Birth length, cm | 48.8 (48.5, 49.0)B–D | 49.6 (49.4, 49.8)A,C,D | 47.0 (46.7, 47.3)A,B,D | 48.0 (47.7, 48.2)A–C | <0.01 |
| Birth weight, g | 3204 (3169, 3239)B–D | 3072 (3042, 3103)A,C,D | 2918 (2877, 2958)A,B,D | 2782 (2745, 2819)A–C | <0.01 |
| Birth weight <2500 g, % | 4.3 (2.6, 6.0)C,D | 7.2 (5.4, 9.0)C,D | 13.8 (10.8, 16.7)A,B,D | 25.6 (22.1, 29.1)A–C | <0.01 |
| Time until first breastfeeding, h | 2.2 (1.9, 2.5) | 2.8 (2.4, 3.2) | 2.3 (2.0, 2.7) | 2.7 (2.2, 3.2) | 0.10 |
| Breastfeeding,4 % | |||||
| None | 39.9 (35.9, 43.9) | 39.9 (36.2, 43.7) | 37.4 (32.9, 42.0) | 36.9 (32.9, 41.0) | 0.49 |
| Exclusive | 2.6 (1.4, 3.9) | 2.5 (1.5, 3.5) | 2.9 (1.6, 4.1) | 2.5 (1.3, 3.7) | 0.96 |
| Partial | 15.4 (12.6, 18.2) | 14.8 (12.4, 17.2) | 15.1 (12.3, 17.9) | 16.1 (13.3, 18.9) | 0.89 |
| Mixed | 42.1 (38.1, 46.1) | 42.8 (39.4, 46.1) | 44.6 (40.4, 48.8) | 44.4 (40.6, 48.3) | 0.72 |
| Clinic visits/infant by age in mo, n | |||||
| Birth to 6 | 1.21 (1.10, 1.33) | 1.10 (1.01, 1.18) | 1.14 (1.04, 1.25) | 1.11 (1.00, 1.23) | 0.42 |
| 6–12 | 0.79 (0.70, 0.88) | 0.78 (0.71, 0.85) | 0.83 (0.74, 0.92) | 0.85 (0.76, 0.94) | 0.55 |
| 12–18 | 0.61 (0.54, 0.68) | 0.52 (0.47, 0.58)C | 0.66 (0.59, 0.74)B | 0.62 (0.54, 0.69) | 0.03 |
| 18–24 | 0.34 (0.29, 0.39) | 0.27 (0.23, 0.30) | 0.35 (0.30, 0.40) | 0.30 (0.25, 0.35) | 0.07 |
| Hospital admissions/infant by age in mo, n | |||||
| Birth to 6 | 0.05 (0.03, 0.07) | 0.04 (0.02, 0.05) | 0.05 (0.03, 0.07) | 0.05 (0.03, 0.07) | 0.69 |
| 6–12 | 0.01 (0.00, 0.02) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) | 0.03 (0.02, 0.05) | 0.05 |
| 12–18 | 0.01 (0.00, 0.02) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.02) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) | 0.75 |
| 18–24 | 0.02 (0.01, 0.02) | 0.01 (0.00, 0.01) | 0.01 (0.00, 0.02) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) | 0.34 |
| WLZ, by age in mo | |||||
| Birth | 0.08 (−0.04, 0.20)B,D | −0.81 (−0.91, −0.71)A,C | 0.16 (0.04, 0.28)B,D | −0.86 (−1.00, −0.72)A,C | <0.01 |
| 6 | 0.72 (0.62, 0.82)B–D | 0.39 (0.30, 0.48)A | 0.43 (0.33, 0.53)A | 0.22 (0.13, 0.32)A | <0.01 |
| 12 | 0.46 (0.36, 0.56)B–D | 0.20 (0.12, 0.28)A,C,D | −0.10 (−0.18, −0.01)A,B | −0.24 (−0.32, −0.15)A,B | <0.01 |
| 18 | 0.41 (0.32, 0.50)B–D | 0.14 (0.07, 0.22)A,C,D | −0.2 (−0.30, −0.10)A,B | −0.40 (−0.49, −0.31)A,B | <0.01 |
| 24 | 0.27 (0.17, 0.37)C,D | 0.13 (0.04, 0.21)D | −0.07 (−0.17, 0.03)A | −0.27 (−0.37, −0.17)A,B | <0.01 |
| LAZ, by age in mo | |||||
| Birth | −0.36 (−0.46, −0.27)B–D | 0.01 (−0.08, 0.10)A,C,D | −1.37 (−1.51, −1.23)A,B,D | −0.92 (−1.04, −0.80)A–C | <0.01 |
| 6 | 0.37 (0.25, 0.48)B–D | −0.28 (−0.38, −0.18)A,C,D | −1.21 (−1.34, −1.09)A,B,D | −1.84 (−1.94, −1.74)A–C | <0.01 |
| 12 | 0.25 (0.09, 0.40)B–D | −0.67 (−0.85, −0.50)A,C,D | −1.42 (−1.57, −1.27)A,B,D | −2.23 (−2.39, −2.07)A–C | <0.01 |
| 18 | −0.10 (−0.19, 0.00)B–D | −0.93 (−1.04, −0.82)A,C,D | −1.77 (−1.88, −1.66)A,B,D | −2.47 (−2.58, −2.36)A–C | <0.01 |
| 24 | −0.33 (−0.59, −0.07)B–D | −0.99 (−1.39, −0.58)A,C,D | −1.86 (−2.07, −1.66)A,B,D | −2.39 (−2.80, −1.97)A–C | <0.01 |
| Stunted,5 by age in mo, % | |||||
| Birth | 5.4 (3.5, 7.4)C,D | 2.5 (1.2, 3.8)C,D | 24.3 (20.3, 28.4)A,B | 16.9 (13.6, 20.2)A,B | <0.01 |
| 6 | 0.3 (0.0, 0.9) | 1.3 (0.3, 2.3)C,D | 16.3 (12.4, 20.2)B,D | 40.0 (35.4, 44.6)B,C | <0.01 |
| 12 | 0.1 (0.0, 0.4) | 2.6 (0.5, 4.7)C,D | 19.2 (14.0, 24.5)B,D | 59.2 (51.1, 67.3)B,C | <0.01 |
| 18 | 0.6 (0.0, 1.4)B–D | 5.5 (2.9, 8.2)A,C,D | 33.2 (27.6, 38.8)A,B,D | 70.8 (64.8, 76.8)A–C | <0.01 |
| 24 | 2.4 (0.0, 5.3)B–D | 9.8 (0.0, 19.7)A,C,D | 40.9 (30.9, 50.9)A,B,D | 66.7 (50.3, 83.2)A–C | <0.01 |
All values are means (95% CIs). P values were determined with the use of an ANOVA or χ2 analyses pooled across 50 retained complete data sets. A–DWhen ANOVA or chi-square tests for heterogeneity were significant, pairwise group comparisons were performed with the use of linear or logistic regression pooled across 50 retained data sets. If the group presented in a column significantly differed from another group, a superscript letter is used to indicate the group it differed from. Pairwise significance was determined at α < 0.05 after Bonferroni correction. AGA, appropriate for gestational age; LAZ, length-for-age z score; MUAC, midupper arm circumference; SGA, small for gestational age; WLZ, weight-for-length z score.
In the Zimbabwe Vitamin A for Mothers and Babies trial, mother-infant pairs were randomly assigned ≤96 h after birth to 1 of 4 treatment groups as follows: maternal treatment [vitamin A supplementation (400,000 IU)], maternal placebo, infant treatment [vitamin A supplementation (50,000 IU)], and infant placebo. Full details of the trial have been published elsewhere (27, 28).
In multiparous mothers.
Detailed feeding information was collected from mothers at infant birth and 6 wk and 3 mo of age including whether any of 22 liquids (water, juice, tea, and cooking oil), milks (formula, fresh, and tinned), medicines (traditional, oral rehydration solution, and prescribed), or solid foods (porridge, sadza, fruit, vegetables, meat, and eggs) had been given to the infant. Breastfeeding was defined as exclusive, predominant, or mixed at 3 mo of age according to previously published definitions (31).
LAZ <−2.