TABLE 3.
Macro- and micronutrient intakes, assessed by food record at 7.5 y of age, by longitudinally defined picky eating types at ages 2–5.5 y in a subsample of ALSPAC children1
| Picky eating type |
||||||
| High |
||||||
| Early onset |
||||||
| Recommendation, EAR, or RNI2 | Never | Low | Nonpersistent | Persistent | Late onset | |
| n | 1350 | 3134 | 279 | 403 | 100 | |
| Macronutrients | ||||||
| Energy, kJ/d | — | 7239 (7169, 7308) | 7193 (7148, 7238) | 7148 (6978, 7318) | 7182 (7058, 7305) | 6967 (6709, 7224) |
| Males | 69003 | 7495 (7397, 7592) | 7473 (7409, 7536) | 7552 (7324, 7780) | 7377 (7213, 7541) | 7403 (7022, 7786) |
| Females | 64003 | 6972 (6877, 7066) | 6913 (6852, 6973) | 6665 (6433, 6897) | 6944 (6764, 7124) | 6547 (6230, 6863) |
| Protein, g/d | 28.34 | 57.8 (57.1, 58.4)a | 55.4 (55.0, 55.9)b | 55.0 (53.4, 56.5)b.c | 53.0 (51.8, 54.2)c | 51.3 (48.7, 53.9)c |
| Carbohydrates, g/d | — | 229 (227, 232) | 231 (230, 232) | 229 (223, 234) | 232 (237, 236) | 227 (219, 236) |
| Fat, g/d | — | 70.0 (69.1, 70.9) | 69.0 (68.4, 69.6) | 69.2 (67.2, 71.3) | 69.7 (68.1, 71.3) | 66.6 (63.5, 69.7) |
| Free sugar, % energy | <105 | 16.7 (16.4, 17.0)a | 17.8 (17.6, 18.0)b | 17.8 (17.1, 18.4)a,b,c | 18.8 (18.2, 19.4)c | 19.1 (18.1, 20.0)b,c |
| Micronutrients | ||||||
| Vitamin A | ||||||
| Retinol, μg/d | — | 390 (366, 414) | 358 (347, 369) | 409 (337, 481) | 369 (336, 401) | 297 (270, 322) |
| Carotene,6 μg/d | — | 2000 (1930, 2070)a | 1888 (1840, 1937)a | 1971 (1785, 2158)a,b | 1678 (1503, 1852)b,c | 1477 (1198, 1755)c |
| REs, μg/d | 5004 | 723 (696, 750)a | 673 (659, 686)b | 738 (660, 815)a,b | 649 (604, 692)b,c | 543 (487, 598)c |
| Thiamin, mg/d | 0.4 mg/4.2 MJ4 | 1.5 (1.5, 1.6)a | 1.4 (1.4, 1.5)b | 1.5 (1.4, 1.6)a,b | 1.5 (1.4, 1.6)a,b | 1.5 (1.2, 1.7)a,b |
| Riboflavin, mg/d | 1.04 | 1.7 (1.6, 1.7)a,b | 1.6 (1.6, 1.7)a | 1.7 (1.6, 1.7)a,b | 1.8 (1.7, 1.8)a,b | 1.6 (1.5, 1.8)a,b |
| Niacin, mg NEs/d | 6.6 NEs/4.2 MJ4 | 27.0 (26.7, 27.3)a | 26.2 (26.0, 26.5)b | 26.1 (25.4, 26.8)a,b | 25.4 (24.8, 26.0)b | 24.9 (23.5, 26.4)b |
| Vitamin B-6, mg/d | 15 μg/g protein4 | 1.8 (1.7, 1.8) | 1.8 (1.7, 1.8) | 1.8 (1.7, 1.8) | 1.7 (1.7, 1.8) | 1.7 (1.6, 1.8) |
| Vitamin B-12, μg/d | 1.04 | 1.9 (3.7, 3.9)a | 1.7 (3.6, 3.7)b | 1.9 (3.5, 4.0)a,b | 1.8 (3.5, 3.8)a,b | 2.0 (3.3, 4.1)a,b |
| Folate, μg/d | 1504 | 203 (200, 206) | 198 (196, 200) | 195 (187, 203) | 195 (188, 202) | 186 (172, 199) |
| Vitamin C, mg/d | 304 | 81.9 (78.9, 84.9) | 80.9 (79.0, 82.9) | 79.9 (73.2, 86.6) | 77.1 (70.5, 83.7) | 78.4 (67.1, 89.7) |
| Vitamin D, μg/d | 04 | 2.5 (2.4, 2.5)a | 2.4 (2.4, 2.4)a,b | 2.4 (2.2, 2.6)a,b,c | 2.2 (2.1, 2.3)c | 2.1 (1.9, 2.3)b,c |
| Vitamin E, mg/d | — | 8.2 (8.0, 8.4) | 8.1 (8.0, 8.2) | 8.1 (7.7, 8.5) | 8.0 (7.6, 8.3) | 7.8 (7.2, 8.4) |
| Calcium, mg/d | 5504 | 804 (790, 818) | 786 (776, 795) | 788 (754, 822) | 826 (797, 854) | 769 (708, 830) |
| Iron, mg/d | 8.74 | 8.6 (8.5, 8.7)a | 8.3 (8.3, 8.4)b | 8.2 (7.9, 8.4)b | 8.2 (7.9, 8.4)b | 7.9 (7.4, 8.3)b |
| Zinc, mg/d | 7.04 | 6.3 (6.2, 6.4)a | 6.0 (6.0, 6.1)b | 5.9 (5.7, 6.1)b,c | 5.9 (5.7, 6.0)b,c | 5.4 (5.9, 5.7)c |
| Selenium, μg/d | 304 | 54.1 (53.2, 54.9)a | 52.4 (51.8, 53.0)b | 49.8 (47.8, 51.8)b | 52.4 (48.7, 52.1)b | 49.2 (45.4, 53.0)a,b |
| Iodine, μg/d | 1104 | 152 (148, 156) | 147 (144, 149) | 145 (136, 154) | 157 (149, 166) | 146 (130, 163) |
Values are means (95% CIs) unless otherwise indicated. Values in the same row without a common superscript letter are significantly different, P < 0.05; rows with no letters have no significant differences between values (ANOVA with Bonferroni correction). Picky eating scores (longitudinal) were assessed with the use of a questionnaire and were defined as follows: 0, not choosy; 1, quite choosy; and 2, very choosy. The responses for singletons were scored 0–2. The overall prevalence of picky eating for scores of children aged 2, 3, 4.5, and 5.5 y was calculated from the number of cases that reported a picky eating score of 2 at ≥2 time points. Early-onset picky eating was defined as the first report of picky eating (score of 2) occurring at the age of 2 or 3 y; late-onset picky eating was defined as the first report of picky eating (score of 2) occurring at the age of 4.5 or 5.5 y. Persistent picky eating was defined as a score of 2 at the first and/or second time points and then a score of 2 at both the third and fourth time points. ALSPAC, Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children; EAR, estimated average requirement; NE, niacin equivalent; RE, retinol equivalent; RNI, reference nutrient intake.
Intake above which will almost certainly be adequate (2 notional SDs above EAR).
From reference 38.
From reference 39.
Carotene is in the form of β-carotene equivalents: sum of β-carotene and half the amounts of α-carotene and α- and β-cryptoxanthins.