TABLE 4.
Fasting lipid profile, indexes of insulin resistance, and vascular biomarkers at baseline (week 0) and postintervention (week 8) for whey protein, calcium-caseinate, and control interventions1
| Whey protein |
Calcium caseinate |
Control |
||||||||
| Baseline | Post | Δ | Baseline | Post | Δ | Baseline | Post | Δ | P2 | |
| Fasting lipid profile | ||||||||||
| Total cholesterol, mmol/L | 5.05 ± 0.2 | 4.88 ± 0.1 | −0.18 ± 0.1a | 5.01 ± 0.2 | 4.89 ± 0.2 | −0.12 ± 0.1a | 5.05 ± 0.2 | 5.12 ± 0.2 | 0.08 ± 0.1b | 0.010 |
| LDL cholesterol, mmol/L | 3.09 ± 0.1 | 3.00 ± 0.1 | −0.09 ± 0.1 | 3.08 ± 0.1 | 3.05 ± 0.1 | −0.03 ± 0.1 | 3.13 ± 0.1 | 3.15 ± 0.1 | 0.01 ± 0.1 | 0.337 |
| HDL cholesterol, mmol/L | 1.36 ± 0.1 | 1.34 ± 0.1 | −0.02 ± 0.02 | 1.35 ± 0.1 | 1.31 ± 0.1 | −0.04 ± 0.03 | 1.34 ± 0.1 | 1.37 ± 0.1 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 0.160 |
| Total cholesterol:HDL cholesterol, mmol/L | 4.00 ± 0.2 | 3.81 ± 0.2 | −0.19 ± 0.1 | 3.97 ± 0.2 | 3.95 ± 0.2 | −0.01 ± 0.1 | 4.02 ± 0.2 | 4.02 ± 0.2 | 0.00 ± 0.1 | 0.094 |
| LDL cholesterol:HDL cholesterol, mmol/L | 2.48 ± 0.2 | 2.38 ± 0.1 | −0.10 ± 0.1 | 2.47 ± 0.2 | 2.50 ± 0.2 | 0.03 ± 0.1 | 2.53 ± 0.2 | 2.49 ± 0.2 | −0.04 ± 0.1 | 0.168 |
| Triacylglycerol, mmol/L | 1.31 ± 0.1 | 1.16 ± 0.1 | −0.15 ± 0.0a | 1.28 ± 0.1 | 1.16 ± 0.1 | −0.12 ± 0.1a,b | 1.25 ± 0.1 | 1.34 ± 0.1 | 0.08 ± 0.1b | 0.018 |
| Indexes of insulin resistance | ||||||||||
| Glucose, mmol/L | 5.04 ± 0.1 | 5.02 ± 0.1 | −0.03 ± 0.01 | 5.03 ± 0.1 | 5.10 ± 0.1 | 0.07 ± 0.1 | 5.00 ± 0.1 | 5.12 ± 0.1 | 0.12 ± 0.1 | 0.111 |
| Insulin, pmol/L | 52.4 ± 5.3 | 51.4 ± 5.0 | −1.17 ± 4.1 | 46.1 ± 4.3 | 51.7 ± 4.2 | 5.53 ± 2.7 | 47.6 ± 4.8 | 52.8 ± 5.0 | 5.25 ± 3.2 | 0.498 |
| NEFAs, μmol/L | 487.7 ± 35.0 | 414.4 ± 29.1 | −73.3 ± 30.7 | 528.7 ± 34.1 | 408.6 ± 28.4 | −120.1 ± 22.0 | 533.1 ± 32.8 | 464.0 ± 29.2 | −69.1 ± 25.8 | 0.091 |
| HOMA-IR | 1.99 ± 0.2 | 1.94 ± 0.2 | −0.05 ± 0.1 | 1.75 ± 0.2 | 1.98 ± 0.2 | 0.23 ± 0.1 | 1.79 ± 0.2 | 2.03 ± 0.2 | 0.24 ± 0.1 | 0.378 |
| QUICKI | 0.501 ± 0.0 | 0.502 ± 0.0 | 0.001 ± 0.0 | 0.503 ± 0.0 | 0.500 ± 0.0 | −0.003 ± 0.0 | 0.503 ± 0.0 | 0.500 ± 0.0 | −0.003 ± 0.0 | 0.135 |
| rQUICKI | 0.510 ± 0.0 | 0.511 ± 0.0 | 0.001 ± 0.0 | 0.511 ± 0.0 | 0.509 ± 0.0 | −0.002 ± 0.0 | 0.512 ± 0.0 | 0.509 ± 0.0 | −0.003 ± 0.0 | 0.102 |
| Vascular biomarkers | ||||||||||
| sVCAM-1, ng/mL | 637.3 ± 21.0 | 639.6 ± 22.5 | 2.3 ± 11.1a,b | 641.6 ± 22.5 | 618.5 ± 21.4 | −23.1 ± 11.7a | 627.7 ± 20.3 | 649.4 ± 23.2 | 21.7 ± 9.9b | 0.011 |
| sICAM-1, ng/mL | 224.7 ± 10.6 | 213 ± 9.0 | −11.7 ± 5.0a | 221.7 ± 10.4 | 218.4 ± 9.0 | −3.2 ± 5.6a,b | 223.6 ± 8.9 | 228.9 ± 10.7 | 5.3 ± 4.9b | 0.039 |
| E-selectin, ng/mL | 33.7 ± 2.1 | 34.15 ± 2.0 | 0.45 ± 0.8 | 34.46 ± 2.2 | 34.90 ± 2.1 | 0.44 ± 0.7 | 34.43 ± 2.2 | 36.32 ± 2.4 | 1.89 ± 0.8 | 0.303 |
| P-selectin, ng/mL | 33.5 ± 0.4 | 33.6 ± 0.3 | 0.09 ± 0.1 | 33.9 ± 0.3 | 33.5 ± 0.4 | −0.41 ± 0.2 | 33.9 ± 0.3 | 33.6 ± 0.4 | −0.28 ± 0.2 | 0.143 |
| CRP, mg/L | 1.25 ± 0.2 | 1.14 ± 0.2 | −0.11 ± 0.2 | 1.13 ± 0.1 | 1.46 ± 0.3 | 0.33 ± 0.3 | 1.10 ± 0.2 | 1.28 ± 0.2 | 0.18 ± 0.2 | 0.906 |
| IL-6, pg/mL | 1.31 ± 0.1 | 1.20 ± 0.1 | −0.11 ± 0.1 | 1.28 ± 0.1 | 1.27 ± 0.1 | −0.02 ± 0.1 | 1.21 ± 0.1 | 1.25 ± 0.1 | 0.04 ± 0.1 | 0.926 |
| TNF-α, pg/mL | 1.23 ± 0.1 | 1.24 ± 0.1 | 0.01 ± 0.1 | 1.24 ± 0.1 | 1.25 ± 0.1 | 0.01 ± 0.1 | 1.22 ± 0.1 | 1.27 ± 0.1 | 0.05 ± 0.1 | 0.856 |
| NO2, μmol/L | 1.45 ± 0.1 | 1.51 ± 0.1 | 0.06 ± 0.2 | 1.41 ± 0.1 | 1.49 ± 0.1 | 0.08 ± 0.2 | 1.51 ± 0.1 | 1.35 ± 0.1 | −0.17 ± 0.1 | 0.842 |
| NO3, μmol/L | 12.8 ± 1.9 | 12.1 ± 1.6 | −0.75 ± 1.4 | 12.0 ± 1.2 | 10.7 ± 1.1 | −1.30 ± 1.1 | 10.8 ± 1.1 | 11.7 ± 1.7 | −0.98 ± 1.2 | 0.811 |
| ACE activity, U/L | 4.65 ± 0.2 | 4.83 ± 0.2 | 0.18 ± 0.1 | 4.76 ± 0.2 | 5.01 ± 0.2 | 0.25 ± 0.1 | 4.58 ± 0.2 | 5.03 ± 0.2 | 0.45 ± 0.1 | 0.503 |
All values are means ± SEMs. n = 38 (except for sICAM-1 and E-selectin, for which n = 36; for P-selectin and IL-6, for which n = 37; and for CRP, for which n = 35). Baselines were not significantly different (P ≤ 0.05) from one another except for E-selectin and IL-6. Data were log transformed for CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α. Different superscript letters within a row refer to treatment groups different from one another (P ≤ 0.05). ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; CRP, C-reactive protein; NEFA, nonesterified fatty acid; QUICKI, quantitative insulin sensitivity index, rQUICKI, revised quantitative insulin sensitivity index; sICAM-1, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1; sVCAM-1, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; Δ, change from baseline.
Overall between-group treatment effects for each Δ were obtained with the use of a linear mixed-model ANOVA with baseline values for the variable of interest and prognostic values such as age, sex, and BMI. Tukey-Kramer correction was used for the post hoc analysis to adjust for multiple testing.