Table 4.

Total Effects of Foundational Skills and Processes on Later Higher-Level Math Outcomes (N = 962)

	on Later Word-Problem Solving Skill			on Later Pre-Algebraic Knowledge
Foundational Skill/Process	estimate	95% BCBS CI	β	estimate	95% BCBS CI	β
Calculation skill	0.25	[0.103, 0.401]	0.0 9	0.49	[0.284, 0.703]	0.1 4
Number understanding	0.13	[0.091, 0.169]	0.1 6	0.14	[0.090, 0.193]	0.1 4
Reasoning	0.12	[0.061, 0.182]	0.1 0	0.15	[0.065, 0.238]	0.1 0
Language comprehension	0.16	[0.105, 0.215]	0.1 4 a	0.06	[−0.019, 0.132]	0.0 4 b
Working memory	0.10	[0.023, 0.180]	0.0 7	0.16	[0.053, 0.265]	0.0 8
Attentive behavior	0.08	[0.052, 0.098]	0.1 7	0.11	[0.075, 0.137]	0.1 9
Processing speed	0.11	[0.017, 0.198]	0.0 5	0.25	[0.108, 0.381]	0.1 0

Note. BCBS CI is bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval; intervals not including 0 signify the effect is significantly different from 0 at α = .05. β is standardized effect. Underlined estimates indicate that effects were tested for equality between the outcomes; different letters within a row within an intermediary skill/outcome indicate significant differences between total effects. Later word-problem solving skill is Iowa Test of Basic Skill-Level 10-Math. Later pre-algebraic knowledge is Test of Pre-Algebraic Knowledge. Calculation skill is Wide Range Achievement Test-Arithmetic. Number understanding is Number Line Estimation (reverse scored). Reasoning is Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence-Matrix Reasoning. Language comprehension is Woodcock Diagnostic Reading Battery-Listening Comprehension. Working memory is Working Memory Test Battery for Children-Listening Recall. Attentive behavior is Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD Symptoms and Normal Behavior Rating Scales. Processing speed is Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement III-Visual Matching.