Table 4.

Annual direct and indirect per capita costs

		Type 2 diabetes	No diabetes
	Ratio* (95% CI)	Adjusted means (95% CI)	Adjusted means (95% CI)
Direct costs	1.81† (1.56 to 2.11)	3352 (2899 to 3877)	1849  (1741 to 1964)
Physician visits
GPs	1.57† (1.42 to 1.75)	136 (123 to 151)	87 (83 to 90)
Specialists	2.14† (1.41 to 3.25)	91 (60 to 136)	42 (38 to 48)
Others	1.36† (1.17 to 1.57)	213 (185 to 244)	157 (149 to 165)
Total	1.53† (1.36 to 1.73)	445 (396 to 500)	290 (279 to 303)
Hospital
Inpatient	1.82† (1.43 to 2.31)	1664 (1320 to 2098)	917 (830 to 1013)
Outpatient	0.89 (0.68 to 1.17)	19 (15 to 24)	21 (19 to 24)
Rehabilitation
Inpatient	1.80† (1.42 to 2.3)	181 (142 to 230)	100 (89 to 113)
Outpatient	0.68 (0.45 to 1.02)	14 (10 to 21)	21 (18 to 24)
Medication	2.01† (1.78 to 2.26)	960 (856 to 1076)	478 (439 to 521)
Indirect costs‡	2.07† (1.51 to 2.84)	4103 (3024 to 5567)	1981 (1800 to 2180)
Inability to work§ (sick leave days)	2.57† (1.52 to 4.36)	3344 (1995 to 5607)	1299 (1185 to 1423)

GEE models with a γ distribution and a log link. Models based on 9160 observations from 6803 participants. €1 was assigned to observations with zero costs.

Models are adjusted for age, sex and educational level and accounted for the repeated measurement structure.

*Exponentiated estimate, non-diabetic participants as reference group.

†Significant at the level of 1%.

‡Only for observations <65 years (n=5207 observations).

§Only for observations <65 years with a regular job (n=3637 observations).

GP general practitioner.