Table 1.
Reviewed studies of efficacy of BCI in stroke rehabilitation.
| Study | Stroke chonicity | N (sex) | System and regimen | Did therapy result in noted improvements? | Are BCI therapy results statistically significant at exit? | Outcomes and behavioral outcome measures of interest |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ang et al. (2015) | Chronic | N = 19 | 10 sessions of tDCS or sham before 1 h of MI-BCI with robotic feedback for 2 weeks (sham-controlled, RCT) | No | No | UE FMMA |
| Ang et al. (2014) | Chronic |
N = 21 M = 14 F = 7 |
3-arm RCT; MI-BCI with HK, HK, and standard therapy; 18 sessions of 1 h interventions | Yes, BCI-HK group | Yes, BCI-HK group | FMMA |
| Biasiucci et al. (2013) | Chronic | N = 4 | At least 10 sessions of FES controlled by BCI over a period of 2 months | Yes | N/A | FMA |
| Broetz et al. (2010) | Chronic |
N = 1 M = 1 F = 0 |
1 h physiotherapy with each BCI session | Yes | No | FMA, Wolf motor function test, modified Ashworth scale |
| Buch et al. (2008) | Chronic | N = 8 | 13–22 sessions MEG-BCI with hand orthosis over 3–8 weeks | Yes | No | In-house measure of success (>50% target ‘hit’) |
| Bundy et al. (2012) | Chronic | N = 4 | Subjects performed between 85 and 246 control trials of BCI | Yes | Yes | ARAT |
| Caria et al. (2011) | Chronic |
N = 1 M = 1 F = 0 |
After 2–4 weeks MEG-BCI, case study had EEG-BCI and 4-week periods of EEG-BCI 3 & 9 months later. 1 h physiotherapy w/each BCI session | Yes | Yes | FMA; Wolf motor function test; modified Ashworth scale, and goal attainment score |
| Daly et al. (2009) | Chronic |
N = 1 M = 0 F = 1 |
Nine 45-min BCI-FES sessions over 3 weeks. Also weekly 1.6 h of non-BCI FES therapy | Yes | Yes | Isolated movement index finger extension |
| Liu et al. (2012) | Sub acute and chronic | N = 314 | 12–20 weekly or twice-weekly 1 h sessions using EEG-BCI triggering a hand orthosis for finger extension over 4–7 months | Yes | Yes, significance was found in FMA and ARAT, but no significance indicated in MAL | FMA, ARAT, and MAL-14 |
| Mihara et al. (2013) | Chronic | N = 20 | 6 sessions of NIRS-guided BCI with mental practice with MI + standard rehabilitation | Yes | Yes | FMA and ARAT |
| Murlidharan et al. (2011) | Chronic | N = 4 | 1 session a week for 4 weeks of BCI | Yes | Yes | FMA |
| Ono et al. (2014) | Chronic | N = 12 | Visual feedback and somatosensory feedback groups. Each group received 12–20 sessions of 1 h length | Yes, motor improvements in somatosensory group | N/A | SIAS for finger function |
| Prasad et al. (2010) | Chronic |
N = 5 M = 4 F = 1 |
2 treatment sessions each week of BCI-MI + PP for a total of 6 week | Yes | Yes | Motricity index ARAT, 9-Hole Peg Test grip strength; fatigue and mood and qualitative feedback |
| Ramos-Murguialday et al. (2013) | Chronic | N = 32 | 17.8 ± 1.4 days of training with BCI with an orthotic | Yes | Yes | FMA |
| Rayegani et al. (2013) | N/A | N = 30 | 10 sessions of conventional OT, in addition to either EMG-biofeedback therapy or neurofeedback therapy | Yes | Voluntary contraction of abductor pollicis brevis increased significantly after EMG-biofeedback therapy | Jebsen hand function test |
| Shin do et al. (2011) | Chronic |
N = 8 M = 8 F = 0 |
12–20 weekly or twice-weekly 1 h sessions over 4–7 months using EEG-BCI triggering a hand orthosis for finger extension | Yes | Yes | SIAS; MAL amount of use; modified Ashworth scale; resting motor threshold |
| Young et al. (2014) | Chronic |
N = 11 M = 8 F = 3 |
At least nine- and up to fifteen 2-h sessions of interventional BCI + FES + TS | Yes | Yes | Stroke impact scale; ARAT; 9-Hole Peg test; laterality index |
N: Number; tDCS: transcranial direct current stimulation; MI: motor imagery; BCI: brain–computer interface; RCT: randomized control trial; UE: upper extremity; FMMA: Fugl-Meyer Motor Assessment; M: male; F: female; HK: Haptic-Knob robotic arm; FES: functional electrical stimulation; MEG: magnetoencephalograms; EEG: electroencephalogram; FMA Fugl-Meyer Assessment; ARAT: Action Research Arm Test; MAL: Motor Activity Log; NIRS: near-infrared spectroscopy; SIAS: Stroke Impairment Assessment Set; PP: physiotherapy; EMG: electromyography; TS: tongue stimulation.