Table 2.
Regression Results: Open defecation in the child’s locality predicts child height.
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (a): Without region (rural and urban province part) fixed effects | ||||||
| open defecation in child’s | −0.814*** | −0.559*** | −0.254** | −0.294** | −0.358** | |
| locality | (0.0656) | (0.0832) | (0.109) | (0.120) | (0.154) | |
| year 2010 | 0.132*** | 0.0162 | −0.0165 | 0.0477 | 0.0422 | 0.0482 |
| (0.0445) | (0.0444) | (0.0431) | (0.0494) | (0.0559) | (0.0718) | |
| household open defecation | −0.0255 | −0.0232 | 0.0652 | 0.124 | ||
| (0.0561) | (0.0540) | (0.0574) | (0.0755) | |||
| mom’s height | 0.0588*** | 0.0570*** | 0.0539*** | 0.0549*** | ||
| (0.00332) | (0.00332) | (0.00358) | (0.00441) | |||
| mom’s BMI | 0.0291*** | 0.0285*** | 0.0234*** | 0.0210** | ||
| (0.00643) | (0.00642) | (0.00669) | (0.00873) | |||
| mom’s age at birth | 0.0119*** | 0.00975** | 0.00824* | 0.00615 | ||
| (0.00415) | (0.00418) | (0.00442) | (0.00547) | |||
| urban | −0.0837 | −0.0975 | −0.195** | |||
| (0.0586) | (0.0619) | (0.0798) | ||||
| birth characteristics | yes | yes | yes | yes | ||
| province characteristics | yes | yes | yes | |||
| PSU characteristics | yes | yes | yes | |||
| household characteristics | yes | yes | ||||
| parents' education | yes | yes | ||||
| vaccination | yes | yes | ||||
| breastfeeding | yes | yes | ||||
| milk consumption | yes | |||||
| n (children under 5) | 7286 | 7286 | 7168 | 7168 | 6389 | 4213 |
| (b): With region (rural and urban province part) fixed effects | ||||||
| open defecation in child’s | −0.738*** | −0.502*** | −0.289*** | −0.350*** | −0.386** | |
| locality | (0.0824) | (0.0927) | (0.111) | (0.120) | (0.156) | |
| year 2010 | 0.123*** | 0.0167 | −0.0153 | 0.0891 | 0.0865 | 0.00740 |
| (0.0430) | (0.0420) | (0.0415) | (0.143) | (0.152) | (0.199) | |
| household open defecation | −0.0180 | −0.0125 | 0.0816 | 0.136* | ||
| (0.0559) | (0.0539) | (0.0572) | (0.0755) | |||
| mom’s height | 0.0566*** | 0.0557*** | 0.0530*** | 0.0531*** | ||
| (0.00331) | (0.00331) | (0.00358) | (0.00434) | |||
| mom’s BMI | 0.0314*** | 0.0305*** | 0.0259*** | 0.0241*** | ||
| (0.00653) | (0.00647) | (0.00677) | (0.00883) | |||
| mom’s age at birth | 0.0115*** | 0.0102** | 0.00830* | 0.00568 | ||
| (0.00410) | (0.00416) | (0.00445) | (0.00559) | |||
| birth characteristics | yes | yes | yes | yes | ||
| province characteristics | yes | yes | yes | |||
| PSU characteristics | yes | yes | yes | |||
| household characteristics | yes | yes | ||||
| parents' education | yes | yes | ||||
| vaccination | yes | yes | ||||
| breastfeeding | yes | yes | ||||
| milk consumption | yes | |||||
| n (children under 5) | 7286 | 7286 | 7168 | 7168 | 6389 | 4213 |
Standard errors clustered by survey primary sampling unit in parentheses. Two-sided p-values: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1. The dependent variable in all regressions is height-for-age z-score. All specifications include 120 age-in-month dummies, separately for boys and girls. Birth characteristics include birth order, month of birth, and whether delivery occurred in an institution. Province characteristics include consumption and density at the province level. PSU characteristics include average electricity coverage and average ownership of radio, television, refrigerator, bicycle, motorcycle, and car. Household characteristics include household electricity, ownership of the same set of assets, floor material, cooking fuel, water source during dry and wet seasons, and number of household members. Parents’ education includes mother’s literacy and father’s number of years of education. Vaccination includes whether the child has an immunization card, and binary indicators for having received vaccinations for BCG, DPT, polio, and measles. Breastfeeding indicates that breastfeeding was initiated immediately. Milk consumption indicates that the child was given tinned, powdered, or fresh milk the previous day and/or night.