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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2017 Sep 15.
Published in final edited form as: Fertil Steril. 2016 Aug 9;106(4):905–929. doi: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.07.1076

Table 8.

Example studies of concentration of blood cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) in pregnant women published in the past 5 years, by location and study years

Location Study Years N Sample Median concentration
1st author, year
Cd, μg/L Pb, μg/dL Hg, μg/L
North America
Canada (Nunavik) 1995–2001 94 CB 3.5 17.0 Boucher, 2014 (81)
US (Boston) 1998- 50 MRBCs 0.86 (GM) 3.93 (GM) 2.35 (GM) Chen, 2014 (83)
CRBCs 0.06 (GM) 2.41 (GM) 3.58 (GM)
US (nationwide) 1999–2006 1183 MWB 0.71 (GM) Razzaghi, 2014 (269)
US (Oklahoma) 2002–2007 476 MB 0.61 (GM) Karwowski, 2014 (136)
CB 0.42 (GM)
US (nationwide) 2003–2004 253 MB 0.2 0.6 0.7 (THg) Woodruff, 2011 (27)
US (Baltimore) 2004–2005 285 CB 0.66 Wells, 2011 (270)
Canada 2005–2007 16 (foreign-born) MWB 0.59 (GM) 0.78 (GM) 0.88 (THg, GM) Adlard, 2014 (206)
77 (Canadian-born) 0.46 (GM) 0.57 (GM) 0.40 (THg, GM)
Canada (Quebec) 2007–2008 349 MWB 0.2 0.83 0.6 Serme-Gbedo, 2016 (195)
US (New York City) 2007–2009 78 CB 2.14 Geer, 2012 (271)
Canada (10 cities) 2008–2011 1260 MWB 0.32 0.88 0.86 Ashley-Martin, 2015 (272)
US (North Carolina) 2009–2011 211 MWB 0.18 (GM) 0.89 (GM) 0.45 (GM) Sanders, 2012 (273)
US (Tennessee) 2009–2011 98 (2nd Tri) MB 0.43 Rabito, 2014 (274)
88 (3rd Tri) 0.43
69 (delivery) 0.50
48 CB 0.37
US (Hawaii) 2010–2011 107 CB 5.2 Soon, 2014 (275)
US (California) 2010–2011 77 MWB 0.22 0.60 0.46 Morello-Frosch, 2016 (in preparation)
59 CWB <LOD 0.39 0.58
Europe
Kosovo 1985–1986 147 (Pristina) MB 5.6 Kahn, 2014 (276)
144 (Mitrovica) 20.0
Faroe Islands 1986–1987 675 CB 23.3 (GM) Grandjean, 2014 (80)
UK (Avon) 1991–1992 4285 MB 0.29 3.41 1.86 Taylor, 2014 (28)
Germany 2000–2002 234 MWB 2.0 Neugebauer, 2015 (277)
Poland (Krakow) 2001–2004 379 CB 1.21 0.89 Jedrychowski, 2015 (278)
Spain 2003–2004 140 MB 0.60 1.90 4.61 García-Esquinas, 2013 (116)
114 CB 0.27 1.38 7.66
Spain 2003–2008 1466; 1407 (Pb; Hg) CWB 1.1 (GM) 7.7 (GM) Llop, 2011 & 2015 (279,280)
Germany 2006 50 MB 0.34 1.15 0.44 Kopp, 2012 (86)
CB <LOD 1.03 1.48
Northeastern Italy 2007–2009 606 MB 2.35 ng/g Valent, 2013 (281)
457 CB 3.97 ng/g
Northern Norway 2007–2009 515 MWB 0.18 (GM) 0.74 (GM) 1.21 (GM) Veyhe, 2015 (203)
Poland 2007–2011 594 CB 1.1 (GM) Polanska, 2014 (282)
Slovenia 2007- 446 CB 1.5 ng/g Miklavcic, 2011 (283)
Belgium 2008
Poland (Upper Silesia) 2010–2012 40 MB 8.0 Kozikowska, 2013 (284)
CB 0.008 μg/g
Greenland 2010–2011, 2013 207 MWB 1.2 0.73 4.2 Long, 2015 (204)
Turkey 2011 93 CB 2.57 (AM) Kayaalti, 2015 (285)
Eastern Slovakia NA 75 MB 0.50; 0.22 Ursinyova, 2012 (286)
CB 0.53; 0.32 (THg; MeHg)
Others
Mexico 1994–2006 217 (1st Tri) MB 2.9 Basu, 2014 (84) & Zhang, 2012 (287)
264 (2nd Tri) MB 2.8
248 (3rd Tri) MB 2.8
457; 144 (Pb; Hg, at birth) CB 5.5 4.1
Japan 2001- 387 CB 1.0 10.1 ng/g (THg) Tatsuta, 2014 (78)
Taiwan 2004–2005 230 CWB 1.14 12.27 Lin, 2013 (288)
Mexico 2005–2006 233 MWB 0.36 (GM) 2.5 (GM) 0.86 (THg, GM) Adlard, 2014 (206)
Saudi Arabia (Al-Kharj) 2005–2006 247 CB 3.1 Al-Saleh, 2014 (289)
China (Shanxi) 2005–2009 215 MB 0.47 2.45 0.26 Jin, 2014 (290)
South Korea 2006–2010 1131 (< 20 gws) MB 1.29 Hong, 2014 (291)
914 (at delivery) MB 1.27
897 (CB) CB 0.93
South Korea 2006–2010 718–867 MB 1.4 (12–20 gws); 1.5 (28–42 gws) 3.5 (12–20 gws); 3.1 (28–42 gws) Kim, 2011 & 2013 (85,292)
797 CB 5.2
Iran (Tehran) 2006–2011 174 (1st Tri) MB 4.15 (AM) Vigeh, 2014 (293)
148 (2nd Tri) MB 3.44 (AM)
145 (3rd Tri) MB 3.78 (AM)
150 CB 2.86 (AM)
China (Chengdu) 2007–2008 128 MB 5.95 (1st Tri) Jiang, 2011 (294)
5.51 (2nd Tri)
5.57 (3rd Tri)
Mexico 2007–2008 292 MB 2.79 (AM) La-Llave-León, 2014 (295)
China 2008 1323 CB 1.8 (GM) Wu, 2013 (296)
Northeastern China 2008 192 MB 1.24 (THg) Li, 2014 (111)
195 CB 2.15 (THg)
South Africa 2008 350 MWB 0.57 Channa, 2013 (297)
CWB 0.80
Caribbean (10 countries) 2008–2011 436 (Hg) MB 1.46 2.09 Forde, 2014 (298)
102 (Pb)
Western Australia 2008–2011 173 MB 0.38 0.37 0.46 Hinwood, 2013 (299)
Eastern China 2009–2010 213 CB 1.54 Guo, 2013 (300)
Pakistan 2009–2012 150; 120 (industrial area; domestic area) MB 19.0; 9.6 Kazi, 2014 (301)
CB 13.6; 8.6
Northern China 2010–2011 252; 258 (Pb; Hg) MB 3.20 0.90 Ding, 2013 (302) & Xie, 2013 (303)
CB 2.52 1.50
Northern China 2011 45 MB 2.17; 0.94 Ou, 2015 (304)
46 CB 2.81; 1.85 (THg; MeHg)
Nigeria (Nnewi) 2011 119; 95 (Pb; Hg) MWB 5.6 3.5 Obi, 2014 & 2015 (87,305)
CWB 4.3 4.9
China (Guizhou) 2011–2012 17 MB 3.0 (THg) Rothenberg, 2013 (75)
China (Wuhan City) 2012 234 (1st Tri) MB 1.93 Shen, 2015 (306)
249 (2nd Tri) 1.36
248 (3rd Tri) 1.29
China NA 209 MB 0.48 4.05 Sun, 2014 (115)
CB 0.15 3.23
India NA 60 MB 13.5 (AM) Reddy, 2014 (307)
CB 8.5 (AM)
Japan (Fukuoka) NA 81 MRBCs 1.97 ng/g (AM) 26.4 ng/g (AM) 9.4 ng/g (AM) Sakamoto, 2010 (79)
CRBCs 0.22 ng/g (AM) 13.2 ng/g (AM) 15.3 ng/g (AM)
Kuwait NA 194 MB 5.8 (AM) Rahman, 2012 (308)
CB 10.9 (AM)
Nigeria NA 349 MB 36.4 (AM) Ugwuja, 2013 (309)

CB: cord blood; CRBCs: cord red blood cells; CWB: cord whole blood; MB: maternal blood; MRBCs: maternal red blood cells; MWB: maternal whole blood; THg: total mercury; MeHg: methyl mercury.

Note: If several studies included participants from the same cohort, the one with the largest sample size was included. This table is for illustrative purpose and should not be taken as an exhaustive list of relevant biomonitored studies.