Table 12.
A synopsis of the cross-species primary emotional systems and their underlying neuroanatomical structures and neurotransmitter/neuropeptides (information taken from Panksepp, 1998b, 2011; Montag and Panksepp, 2016).
| Distinct facets of Internet addiction | Panksepp's primary emotional systems | Brain neuroanatomy related to these primary emotional systems | Neuropeptides/neurotransmitters related to these primary emotional systems |
|---|---|---|---|
| Overall GPIUS-2 score | FEAR | Central and lateral amygdala to medial hypothalamus and dorsal periaqueductal gray (PAG) | Glutamate (+), CRF(+), CCK(+), alpha-MSH(+), oxytocin (—) |
| Preference for online social interaction | |||
| Compulsive Internet use | |||
| Negative outcomes | |||
| Cognitive Preoccupation | RAGE | Medial amygdala to bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST). Medial and perifornical hypothalamus to PAG | Substance P (+), Ach (+), glutamate (+) |
| Overall GPIUS-2 score | PANIC/SADNESS | Anterior cingulate, BNST and preoptic area, dorsomedial thalamus, PAG | Opioids (−), oxytocin (−), prolactin (−), CRF (+), glutamate (+) |
| Mood regulation | |||
| Cognitive Preoccupation | |||
| Negative Outcomes | SEEKING | Nucleus accumbens—ventral tegmental area (VTA), mesolimbic and mesocortical outputs, lateral hypothalamus—PAG | Dopamine (+), glutamate (+), opioids (+), neurotensin (+), orexin (+) |
| Overall GPIUS-2 score | CARE | Anterior cingulate, BNST, preoptic area, VTA, PAG | Oxytocin (+), prolactin (+), dopamine (+), opioids (+/−) |
| LUST | Cortico-medial amygdala, BNST, preoptic hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), PAG | Gonadal steroids (+), vasopressin (+ male), oxytocin (+ female), LH-RH (+) | |
| Preference for online social interaction | PLAY | Dorso-medial diencephalon, parafascicular area, PAG | Opioids (+/−), glutamate (+), Ach (+), endocannabinoids (+) |
+ Excitatory effects/− inhibiting effects; CRF: corticotropin releasing factor/hormone, CCK: cholecystokinin, alpha-MSH: alpha melanocyte stimulating hormone, Ach: acetylcholine, LH-RH: luteinising hormone releasing hormone. The potential LUST association with the GPIUS-2 is presented below the CARE circuitry, because both LUST and CARE are deeply entwined. Of note, LUST has not been assessed with the ANPS. The present potential association is only presented as an idea for future research projects.