Table 1.

Examples of pesticides with membrane-related activity.

	Chemical class	Representative compound	Major target site	Membrane-related physiological function affected
Insecticides	Organophosphates	Chlorpyrifos	Acetylcholinesterase	Chemical transmission of nerve impulse to post-synaptic membrane of nervous system
	Carbamates	Oxamyl
	Neonicotinoids	Imidacloprid	Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR), agonist action on nAChR	nAChR subunits contains transmembrane domains, extracellular terminus and intracellular loop
	Spinosyns	Spinosad	Activation of nAChR
	Nereistoxin analogs	Cartap	Blocks of nAChR
	Cyclodiene	Endosulfan	GABA-gated chloride channels	GABA and glutamate receptors coupled to chloride channels are located at postsynaptic membrane of neuronal dendritic spine
	Phenylpyrazoles	Fipronil
	Avermectins	Abamectin	Glutamate-gated chloride channels
	Organochlorines	DDT	Voltage-gated sodium channel (vgsc)	Vgsc consists of a single polypeptide chain with four internally homologous domains each having six transmembrane helices located at the insect axonal membrane of nervous cells- organochlorines and pyrethroids binds to the vgsc and locks it in the open state
	Pyrethroids	Deltamethrin
	Oxadiazine	Indoxacarb
	METIs	Fenazaquin	Inhibit electron transport during ATP production	The electron transport chain is a series of cytochromes involved in the production of energy (ATP) located at mitochondrial membrane
	Microbial	Bacillus Thuringiensis proteins (δ-endotoxins)	Peritrophic membrane pore formation	Microbial disruption of midgut membranes
	Diamides	Chlorantraniliprole	Ryanodine receptor and release of Ca2+	Ryanodine receptors are a family of Ca2+ release channels located at the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and are responsible for the release of Ca2+
	Formamidine	Amitraz	Octapamine receptors	Octopamine receptors or G-protein coupled receptor have seven transmembrane domains located at insect nervous system and influencing multiple physiological events
	Benzoylphenylurea	Diflubenzuron	Chitin biosynthesis	chitin synthase are large transmembrane proteins
Herbicides	Triazines	Terbuthylazine	Photosynthesis inhibitor	D-1 quinone-binding protein of photosynthetic electron transport chain is located at thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts (Photosystem II receptor)
	Ureas	Linuron
	Nitrile	Bromoxynil
	Triketone	Mesotrione	Pigment inhibitors	Inhibit p-hydroxyphenyl pyruvate dioxygenase which is located at the thylakoid membrane
	Aryloxyphenoxypropionic	Fenoxaprop	Acetyl CoA carboxylase inhibitors	Acetyl CoA carboxylase is located at plastid membranes. Inhibition of fatty acid synthesis blocks the production of phospholipids used in building new membranes required for cell growth
	Sulfonylurea	Nicosulfuron	Amino acid synthesis inhibitors	Acetolactate synthase is located at chloroplast membrane
	Diphenyl ether	Acifluorfen	Protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitors-cell membrane disrupters	Protoporphyrinogen oxidase is located at thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts
	Bipyridylium	Paraquat	Photosystem I electron eiverter	Produce lipid hydroperoxides and destroy the integrity of cell membranes
	Chloroacetamide	Metolachlor	Long-chain Fatty Acid Inhibitors	Long-chain fatty acids are involved in many membrane-related biochemical responses of epidermis cells such as cell proliferation
	Thiocarbamate	EPTC
Fungicides	Phosphorothiolates	Pyrazophos	Phospholipid biosynthesis	These fungicides are directly affect lipid synthesis and membrane permeability and integrity
	Aromatic hydrocarbons	Quintozene	Lipid peroxidation
	Carbamates	Propamocarb	Cell membrane permeability fatty acids and phospholipid inhibitor
	Microbial	Lipopeptides from B. Subtilis	Membrane integrity	Microbial disrupters of pathogen cell membranes
	Pyridine	Boscalid	Inhibit fungal respiration by blocking the succinate-dehydrogenase sites in the mitochondrial complex II	Succinate dehydrogenase is an enzyme complex, bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane - It is the only enzyme that participates in both the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain
	Organotins	Fentin acetate	Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation, ATP synthase	ATP synthase is located at inner mitochondrial membrane
	Triazoles	Myclobutalin	C14-demethylase during sterol biosynthesis by inhibiting the mixed-function oxygenase cytochrome P450	All these fungicides targeting cell membrane integrity by inhibiting sterol formation
	Imidazoles	Imazalil
	Pyrimidines	Fenarimol
	Morpholines	Fenpropimorph	Δ14-Reductase and Δ8→ Δ7-isomerase in sterol biosynthesis
	Phenylpyrroles	Fludioxonil	Mitogen-activated protein/histidine- Kinase in osmotic signal transduction	Kinases are located at cell membranes and influencing signal transduction
	Dicarboximides	Iprodione