Table 3.
Association of individual and community/neighborhood factors with serum 25(OH)-vitamin D levels.
| All Participants (N=6643) |
Male (N=3402) |
Female (N=3241) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | β (SE) | P Valuea | β (SE) | P Valuea | β (SE) | P Valuea |
| Individual factors | ||||||
| Age (year) | -0.004 (0.007) | 0.59 | 0.019 (0.009) | 0.04 | -0.019 (0.011) | 0.08 |
| Male (vs. female) | 0.260 (0.187) | 0.16 | ||||
| Black (vs. White) | -9.371 (0.290) | <0.0001 | -9.380 (0.361) | <0.0001 | -9.676 (0.430) | <0.0001 |
| Hispanic/Latino (vs. White) | -5.119 (0.325) | <0.0001 | -4.674 (0.425) | <0.0001 | -5.884 (0.473) | <0.0001 |
| Foreign-born (vs. US-born) | -0.086 (0.295) | 0.77 | -0.178 (0.381) | 0.64 | -0.609 (0.443) | 0.17 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | -0.255 (0.014) | <0.0001 | -0.255 (0.014) | <0.0001 | -0.291 (0.020) | <0.0001 |
| Current smoker (vs. non-current smoker) | -0.446 (0.224) | 0.047 | -0.368 (0.278) | 0.19 | -0.628 (0.366) | 0.09 |
| Non-high school graduate (vs. high school graduate) | -0.157 (0.281) | 0.58 | 0.014 (0.361) | 0.97 | -0.486 (0.437) | 0.27 |
| College degree or above (vs. non-college graduate) | 0.113 (0.312) | 0.72 | -0.733 (0.409) | 0.07 | 0.820 (0.471) | 0.08 |
| Family income-to-needs ratiob | 0.268 (0.074) | 0.0003 | 0.269 (0.095) | 0.005 | 0.206 (0.112) | 0.07 |
| Community/neighborhood factors | ||||||
| Tract urban area (vs. rural area) | -0.446 (0.390) | 0.25 | -0.312 (0.446) | 0.48 | -0.204 (0.499) | 0.68 |
| County crime rate (# of crime /1000 persons)c | -0.255 (0.069) | 0.0002 | -0.212 (0.082) | 0.01 | -0.292 (0.091) | 0.001 |
| Tract SES factor scored | 0.202 (0.162) | 0.21 | 0.208 (0.162) | 0.20 | 0.007 (0.196) | 0.97 |
| Tract USDA food desert (vs. non-food desert) | 0.340 (0.434) | 0.43 | 0.342 (0.434) | 0.43 | 0.187 (0.516) | 0.72 |
Note: β = β Coefficient; SE = Standard error.
a
P values were estimated using multilevel random-intercept regression model.
b
A ratio in which the numerator is a family's household annual income and the denominator is the federal poverty threshold given the appropriate family size, location and year.
c
Total number of crimes per 1000 persons in the county.
d
Tract socioeconomic status (SES) factor score as constructed based on percent affluent households, percent residents in poverty and percent college educated residents.