Fig. 1.

A model of self-propelled particles with cell-like interactions. (A) Central cell–cell force $F_{ij}^{cc}$ (black), including a soft repulsion due to reduction of cell–substrate adhesion area (gray) and attraction due to active contractility through cell–cell adhesions (red). (B) Cell extrusion for intercellular distances $d_{ij}<R$, resulting in vanishing cell–cell forces in the plane. (C) Cellular self-propulsion force $F_m$ in the direction of the cell polarity ${\text{𝒑}}_i$. CIL rotates the polarity toward the direction ${\text{𝒑}}_i^f$ pointing away from cell–cell contacts.