Table 1.

The included studies

Author/year	Outline – population and sample	Intervention	Main findings
Adams et al (2013)19	Cross-sectional study of 446 patients, 83% of whom were women, with an average age of 56 years	Wellness coaching sessions conducted via telephone that focused on lifestyle changes	Wellness coaching programs via telephone can help patients achieve their health goals
Cinar and Schou (2014)16	Randomized clinical study with 186 participants with type II diabetes mellitus between 30 and 65 years of age	In the intervention group, that is, the group receiving health coaching, participants had sessions with the coach in person and via telephone. The participants in the control group (formal education) received orientation from a dentist followed by in-person and telephone sessions focused on education and delivered by a nutritionist and a nurse specialist in diabetes.	Health coaching significantly improved the management of oral health and glucose control compared with formal health education
Mettler et al (2014)20	Prospective cohort study of 177 patients/members of the well-being center with an average BMI of 34.4 kg/m2, 92% women, and an average age of 42.9 years	Sessions with wellness coaches, the first from 60 to 90 minutes and then 30–60 minutes weekly for 3 months for a total of 12 in-person sessions	Coaching was effective in enhancing motivation for behavioral change action. Additional randomized studies of the potential benefits of wellness coaching are recommended.
O’Hara et al (2013)21	Cohort study of 277 patients of Australia’s GHS; 79.1% of the participants were women, and the average age was 48.4 years	Coaching sessions were conducted via telephone for 6 months. Anthropometric data, consumption of fruits and vegetables, and physical activity were evaluated. Sessions were conducted also at the end of 12 months of the initial date. The anthropometric measurements were provided by the participants themselves (they received instruction regarding the measurements).	Preliminary evidence indicates that the GHS has the potential to substantially improve the profile of patients with chronic diseases and facilitate the maintenance of weight loss at 6 months following the program’s end
Patja et al (2012)17	Randomized clinical study of 1,221 patients >45 years of age with type II diabetes mellitus, coronary disease, and congestive heart failure	Health coaching sessions were performed by trained and certified nurses or nurses in public health. Patients in the intervention group were contacted via telephone once a month, ten to eleven times. The coaching calls lasted >60 minutes.	Individualized health coaching via telephone was not effective in achieving the majority of clinical objectives measured. The authors stated that the interventions should have been more intensively applied in the selected groups.
Wolever et al (2011)22	Organizational case study with six coaches and 360 clients	An independent researcher who was not involved in the coaching process revised three programs in integrative health coaching at the Duke School of Integrative Medicine	When the relationship between client and professional allows compromise, the client can discover strategies for change that can be adapted to particular situations. The authors recommend that coaching training that is recognized by the International Coaching Federation be used.
Bonal Ruiz et al (2012)23	Narrative review article	Literature review regarding the concept of coaching in health, the limitations between traditional health education and the advantages of coaching, evidence of effectiveness in primary health, coaching techniques, and the importance of intersectoriality	Health coaching is a promising approach. It is necessary to overcome doctor-centered thinking and consider intersectoriality and the local political will.
Venditti et al (2014)11	Cohort study with 3,234 participants from 27 centers enrolled in the DPP. The average age was 50.6 years and 68% of participants were female	Sixteen sessions in which the participants learned coaching skills to achieve goals. The postcore period involved continued evaluation of the ability to resolve problems ~6 months from the beginning of the study	Problem-solving and evaluations of self-monitoring competencies were the most common approaches used by the coaches. Minimum resources, such as nutritional education, email, and telephone calls, given to professionally trained coaches to facilitate these approaches for adherence to the treatment appeared justified
Temmingh et al (2013)18	Cohort study over 12 months of 761 psychiatric outpatients of the Lily Wellness Plus Program; patients were >18 years old, 548 were women, and 213 were men	Telecoaching sessions with health risk and lifestyle habit evaluation were conducted that provided exercise and meal plans. The telecoaches were nutritionists and physical educators with experience in coaching techniques and were registered with the Health Professions Council of South Africa	Considering that the magnitude of weight loss was moderate and decreased significantly over time, with 46% of the patients losing more than 5% of their initial weight, patients with severe mental illness at a young age with a diagnosis of mood disorder or chronic diseases may require more intensive interventions, such as in-person sessions
Leahey and Wing (2013)12	Randomized clinical trial with 44 patients; patients were men and women with BMIs of between 30 and 40 kg/m2 and an age range of 40–60 years	The participants underwent a weight-loss program of 6 months and were randomly assigned to one of the three coach conditions: professional coach, peer coach, and mentor. The intervention was the same for the three groups and included in-person meetings and feedback by email	The patients reported that they were satisfied with the weight-loss program. Thus, professional coach, peer coach, and mentor are all viable and acceptable approaches for enhancing weight loss. The results suggested that professional coaches and peer coaches can be superior to mentors
Shahnazari et al (2013)13	Randomized study of 84 patients at the San Francisco Medical Center; n=73 men and eleven women. Average age was 55 years in the control group and 54 years in the intervention group	Control group: n=41. Intervention group: n=43. The coaching sessions focused on nutrition and healthy eating habits and the use of motivational interviewing techniques to help veterans move through the stages of behavioral change	The intervention group that received wellness coaching exhibited weight loss, a reduction in calorie consumption, and more motivation during treatment compared with the control group
Gabriele et al (2011)15	Randomized study (single-blinded) of 104 employees of the University of North Carolina. Participants were 30–60 years of age with a BMI of 25–40 kg/m2; n=87 women	Groups: minimal support; weekly lesson by email, with standardized order and weekly feedback. Directive support; weekly classes standardized by email. The e-coach evaluated the self-reported weight and formulated the goals and tasks. Nondirective support; the participants decided what objectives and strategies to follow. The e-coach’s weekly support was to incentivize the identification of goals and overcoming of obstacles	Directive support might have been more effective than the intervention of weight loss due to the simplification of objectives for the participants via email. Thus, this study provides evidence that Internet programs can be an effective means of helping individuals lose weight
Tucker et al (2008)14	Randomized study with 128 participants; age range, 25–60 years; average, 43±9. 64 men and 64 women; BMI, 25–35 kg/m2	Randomization groups: coaching + placebo, coaching + active supplement, active supplement + noncoaching. Coaching intervention via telephone through the coach trained in weight loss. Supplement intervention through the ingestion of capsules containing micronutrients and herbal medicine or placebo	The adults who took the supplement and received coaching lost double the weight and body fat compared with those who took the supplement but did not receive coaching or those who received coaching but took the placebo. Coaching via telephone plus supplement for weight loss seemed to be effective interventions for losing weight, especially when combined

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; DPP, diabetes prevention program; GHS, Get Healthy Information and Coaching Service.