Figure 1.

(a) E. coli whole-cell bioconversion strategy and (b) itaconate synthesis pathway in A. terreus (fermentation). In the E. coli whole-cell bioconversion strategy, two enzymes involved in this pathway, aconitase and cis-aconitate decarboxylase, were overexpressed. Unlike A. terreus, E. coli has no organelles, so the reaction proceeds spontaneously without the need for intracellular transport. In A. terreus fermentation, glucose is metabolized through glycolysis and the TCA cycle. Citric acid generated by the TCA cycle is converted to cis-aconitic acid by aconitase in the cytosol. Cis-aconitic acid is transferred to the mitochondria and converted to itaconic acid by cis-aconitate decarboxylase.