Table 4.

List of biomarkers used in preclinical and clinical applications

Drug or therapy	Mechanism of action	Biomarker(s) used for evaluation	Biofluid	Reference(s)
Anakinra + riluzole	IL-1 receptor antagonist	IL-6, TNF-α, of fibrinogen levels, C-reactive protein	Serum	[160]
Tocilizumab (Actemra®)	Inhibits IL-6 and soluble IL-6	IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, GM-CSF, and TNF-α, and evaluation of mRNA levels of many inflammatory cytokines	PBMC	[161, 162]
Arimoclomol	Inducer of heat shock response	pNFH	Plasma	[163]
Thalidomide	Immune suppression	TNF-α	Serum	[164]
Memantine + Riluzole	NMDA receptor antagonist	Tau and pNFH	CSF	[165]
Antisense oligonucleotide against SOD1	Short DNA sequence that binds mRNA and triggers degradation	SOD1	CSF	[128]
Pyrimethamine	Antimalarial drug	SOD1	CSF and leukocytes	[127]
Celecoxib	NSAID that inhibits COX-2	Prostaglandin E2	CSF	[166]
Dexpramipexole	Improves mitochondrial efficiency	Creatinine	Plasma	[88]

IL = interleukin; TNF = tumor necrosis factor; GM-CSF = granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor; PBMC = peripheral blood mononuclear cells; pNFH = phosphorylated neurofilament heavy chain; NMDA = N-methyl-D-asparate; CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; SOD = superoxide dismutase; NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; COX = cyclooxygenase