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Copper and cadmium-induced MAPK signaling pathways. Excess copper and cadmium ions induce distinct MAPK pathways with different kinetics. A, As a redox-active metal ion, copper leads to the production of ROS that might trigger SIMK and SAMK activation via SIMKK. B, Cadmium activates SIMK, MMK2, MMK3, and SAMK. The upstream components mediating MAPK activation by cadmium remain to be identified.
