Table 1.
DAMPs | Neurological conditions | DAMPs releasing cells | Target cells | Target receptors | Downstream expression | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HMGB1 | Brain ischemia, TBI, stroke, ethanol exposure, AD, PD, HD | Injured neurons, oligodendrocyte-like cells, glial cells | Microglia, astrocytes, blood vessel-associated cells | RAGE, TLR2, TLR4 | IL-1β, IFNγ, IL-1α, TNFα, IL-6 | [20, 40, 88, 89, 92–94] |
| ||||||
HSPs | TBI, stroke | Injured cells | Microglia | TLR2, TLR4, RAGE | TNFα, IL-1β, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selection, iNOS | [105–107, 203] |
| ||||||
S100B | AD, PD, HD | Astrocytes | Astrocytes, microglia | RAGE | Bcl-2 (antiapoptotic) | [112, 113] |
| ||||||
DNA | Aging, TBI | Damaged or dead neurons | Astrocytes, microglia | TLR9 | TNFα, IL-1β, RANTES | [125–129] |
| ||||||
ATP | Stroke, PD, seizure | Damaged mitochondria | Microglia | NLRP3, P2X7RRAGE | TNFα, IL-6, COX-2, IL-8 | [30, 131–133, 135, 136] |
HMGB1, high mobility group box 1 protein; HSPs, heat shock proteins; S100B, calcium-modulated proteins B; DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; TBI, traumatic brain injury; AD, Alzheimer's disease; PD, Parkinson's disease; HD, Huntington's disease; RAGE, receptor for advanced glycation end products; TLR, toll-like receptor; IL, interleukin; TNF, tumor necrosis factors; IFN, interferon; ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule; VCAM, vascular cell adhesion molecule; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; Bcl-2, b-cell lymphoma 2; RANTES, regulated on activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2.