Table 3.
False memory studies of uncorroborated childhood events (‘false feedback’ paradigm)
| Authors | Participants | False childhood event (additional relevant B/S conditions) | Significant FF effect | Mean belief/recollection increase on 8‐point scalea | Mean increase beyond scale midpointa | % memory or recollection post‐test |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mazzoni and Loftus (1998) | 44 college students | Lost; abandoned; lonely and lost, all before age 3 years | Yes | Belief (collapsed across events) 2.26 FF; −0.16 no FF | ||
| Mazzoni et al. (1999) | 63 college students | Lost; bullied, both before age 3 years | Yes | Belief (collapsed across events) 1.15 FF; −0.47 no FF | ||
| Mazzoni et al. (2001) Study 1 | 65 college students | Witnessed possession; almost choked. both before age 3 years (FF choked versus FF possession versus no FF) | Yes | Belief range: 1.68–1.54 FF 0.05 to −0.1 no FF | No | |
| Mazzoni et al. (2001) Study 2 | 71 college students | Witnessed possession; kidnapping threat (FF possession versus FF kidnap versus no FF) | Yes | Belief range: 1.48–0.87 FF 0.50–0.24 no FF | No | |
| Mazzoni et al. (2001) Study 3 | 57 college students | Witnessed possession (FF possession same culture versus FF other culture versus no FF) | Yes: same culture group only | Belief range: 0.84–0.15 FF −0.06 no FF | No | |
| Bernstein et al. (2005a) Study 1 | 131 college students | Ill after strawberry ice cream; sick after chocolate chip cookie (FF ill strawberry versus FF sick chocolate versus no FF) | No B/S test conducted | Belief range: 0.51 to −0.13 FF −0.23 to −0.36 no FF | No | No data for whole FF group and control group |
| Bernstein et al. (2005a) Study 2 | 204 college students | Ill after strawberry ice cream (FF + scenario versus FF + elaboration versus no FF) | No B/S test conducted | Belief range: 1.12–0.5 FF 0.16 no FF | No | No data for whole FF group and control group |
| Bernstein et al. (2005b) Study 2 | 180 college students | Sick after pickle or egg (feedback target: pickle versus egg) | Yes | Belief range: 0.88–0.63 FF 0.17–0.07 no FF | No | No data for whole FF group and control group |
| Scoboria et al. (2007) Study 1 | 56 college students | Bone density screening (FF prevalence and rationale versus FF prevalence versus no FF) | Yes: Belief FF Prevalence + rationale only No: Recollection | Belief range: 2.17–0.11 FF −0.69 no FF Recollection range: 0.11 to −0.12 FF −0.21 no FF | No: Belief and Recollection | |
| Scoboria et al. (2007) Study 2 | 156 college students | Bone density screening; skin sample taken (FF prevalence and rationale versus FF prevalence versus no FF) | Yes: Belief FF Prevalence + rationale only | Belief range: 1.61–0.87 FF −0.16 no FF | No: Belief and Recollection | |
| No: Recollection | ||||||
| Recollection range: | ||||||
| 0.14–0.07 FF | ||||||
| −0.09 no FF | ||||||
| Laney, Morris et al. (2008) Study 1 | 97 college students | Loved to eat asparagus | Yes | Belief (pre‐test ratings 1–4) 2.60 FF; 0.20 no FF | No | Recollection: 22% FF 12% no FF Belief: 35% FF 28% no FF |
| Laney, Morris et al. (2008) Study 2 | 73 college students | Loved asparagus first time tried | Yes | Belief (pre‐test ratings 1–4) 2.50b FF; 1.07b no FF | No | Recollection: 28% FF 6% no FF Belief: 28% FF 38% no FF |
| Laney, Fowler et al. (2008) | 320 college students | Loved (or hated) asparagus first time tried (loved versus hated asparagus) | No test of effect on whole FF group | Belief (1–7) range: (excludes Ps with both pre + post‐test ratings > 4) 2.21–1.39 FF 0.93 to −0.08 no FF | No: loved asparagus Yes: hated asparagus | Recollection: 17–7% FF 12–5% no FF Belief: 30–27% FF 49–41% no FF |
| Laney, Kaasa et al. (2008) Study 1 | 187 college students | Loved asparagus first time tried; sick after asparagus | Yes: Loved No: Sick | Belief (1–7) range: Lovedb 1.40 FF; −0.20 no FF Sickb 0.70 FF; 0.30 no FF | No | |
| Berkowitz et al. (2008) | 332 college students | Ear licked by Pluto (FF good Pluto versus FF bad Pluto versus no FF) | No B/S test conducted | Belief range: (pre‐test ratings 1–4) 1.12–0.36 FF 0.10 no FF | No | Recollection: range 3–2% FF Belief: range 37–27% FF No data for control group |
| Scoboria et al. (2008) | 21 young adults | Sick on spoiled dairy | No | Belief (means not reported) | ||
| Sharman and Calacouris (2010) | 46 college students | Achievement event; affiliation event | Yes Belief and Recollection | (low pretest belief ratings) Belief range: 4.35–3.91 FF 2.76–1.80 no FF Recollection range: 3.87–3.28 FF 1.74–1.13 no FF | Yes: Belief (FF and No FF) Yes: Recollection | |
| Scoboria, Mazzoni, Jarry, & Bernstein (2012) | 122 college students | Sick on peach yoghourt [personalised FF (PFF) versus no PFF, generalised FF (GFF) versus no GFF] | Yes: PFF only Belief and Recollection | (pretest belief rating 1–4) Belief range: 2.30–0.94 FF; 1.03 no FF | No: Belief and Recollection | (pretest belief rating 1–4) Recollection: 19% PFF 2% no PFF |
| Recollection range: 1.70–0.13 FF; 0.21 no FF | Belief: 25% PFF 5% no PFF | |||||
| Scoboria, Mazzoni, Jarry, & Shapero (2012) Study 1 | 42 college students | Sick on peach yoghourt | Yes: Belief (Recollection analysis on post‐test ratings only) | Belief 2.68 FF; 1.45 no FF Recollection 1.68 FF; 0.40 no FF | No Belief and Recollection | |
| Clifasefi et al. (2013) | 125 college students | Sick after rum or vodka before age 16 years | Yes | Belief (alcohol drinkers only) 0.54 FF; −0.15 no FF | No | No data for whole FF group and control group |
Cells left blank where relevant data not reported.
B/S = between‐subjects; FF = false feedback condition; No FF = no false feedback condition; P = Participants.
a
Belief (confidence) and recollection ratings in listed studies are all on 1–8 point scales unless otherwise specified; where ranges are given, means and percentages vary according to condition; scales include the following: Life Events Inventory (LEI: Garry et al., 1996) with authors' modified events; Food History Inventory (FHI: Bernstein et al., 2005a); Autobiographical Beliefs and Memory Questionnaire (ABMQ: Scoboria et al., 2004); Food and Beverage History Questionnaire (FBHQ: Clifasefi et al., 2013).
b
Estimated from published figures.