Table 2.

Selected examples of astrocyte-produced molecules that exert or regulate anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory functions.

Astrocyte molecules	Anti-inflammatory functions	Reference
Cytokines and growth factors
TGFβ, IL6, IL10, IL11, IL19, IL27	Activate diverse anti-inflammatory signaling mechanisms.	37–39, 131–133
SHH	Maintains blood-brain barrier by acting on endothelia Smo receptors; Induces proliferation of scar-forming astrocytes.	51, 134
Intracellular signaling factors
STAT3, A20, Gal9, CRYAB	Suppress pro-inflammatory signaling mechanisms.	26, 41, 54, 68, 69, 71, 135
Receptors
ERα, GP130, DRD2,	Suppress pro-inflammatory signaling mechanisms.	55, 69, 74, 75
Small inter-cellular effector molecules
RA	Reduces oxidative stress, protects blood-brain barrier function, reduces inflammation.	66
microRNAs
miR-181, Dicer1, miR-17-5p	Suppress pro-inflammatory signaling mechanisms; Required for scar-forming astrocyte proliferation via JAK/STAT signaling.	72, 136

Astrocyte molecules	Pro-inflammatory functions	Reference
Chemokines
CCL2, CCL5, CCL7, CCL8, CCL12	Recruit diverse leukocytes including monocytes, macrophages, T cells, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, dendritic cells.	37–39, 43, 44, 132
CXCL1, CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL12, CXCL16	Recruit diverse leukocytes including monocytes, macrophages, neutrophil, T cells, NKT cells, B cells, dendritic cells.	37–39, 45, 132
Cytokines and growth factors
IL1β, IL6, IL11, IL15, IL17, TNFα, BAFF	Activate diverse pro-inflammatory signaling mechanisms.	37–39, 131, 132, 137
VEGF	Opens endothelial blood-brain barrier and promotes leukocyte extravasation.	46, 47
Intracellular signaling factors
NFκB, SOCS3,	Activate diverse pro-inflammatory signaling mechanisms.	40–42
Act1	Activates IL17 mediated pro-inflammatory signaling mechanisms.
Small inter-cellular effector molecules
PGE, NO	Diverse pro-inflammatory effects.	135