Table 1.
Summary of the articles reviewed (n = 31) with an overview of the subjects and experimental protocols, parameters examined, and major results and implications for the performance of elite sprint cross-country skiers
| Study reference, quality, design, and focus | Subjects | Experimental protocol overview | Parameters examined | Major results and implications for sprint skiing performance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Andersson et al. [15] 72 % QE/CS Biomechanics, physiology, and anthropometry |
Sample: 9 males Country: Sweden Level: national team Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: G3 (V2), DIA, and DP Conditions: laboratory (treadmill, anthropometry) and snow Tests: VO2peak with DIA, 20-m sprint with G3 (V2) and DP, 1,425-m TT simulated race skating on snow with ±8.6° incline (one-third flat, one-third uphill, one-thrid downhill), and DXA |
20-m speed TT speed (using GNSS) Section speeds (uphill, downhill, flat) Total, lean, and fat mass Number of transitions Techniques used CR VO2peak Body composition |
20-m speed: DP 7.9 ± 0.4 m/s and G3 (V2) 10.2 ± 0.4 m/s VO2peak: 73.4 ± 5.8 ml/kg/min 1425-m TT speed: 6.9 ± 0.3 m/s Faster skiers entered uphill sections with greater speed, used G3 (V2) more frequently, and used fewer transitions Slower skiers relied more on G2 (V1) The mean speed on the start section was positively correlated to the total lean mass (r = 0.78, p < 0.05), but no other correlations between body composition and performance were found Performance is influenced by a range of physiological, biomechanical, and tactical factors |
| Andersson et al. [40] 61 % QE/CS Biomechanics |
Sample: 11 males Country: Norway Level: national team Speciality: 4 sprinters, 4 distance, and 3 all-round skiers FISsprint: 38 ± 21 (sprinters); 97 ± 22 (distance); 85 ± 34 (all-round) |
Technique: DIA Conditions: snow Tests: 50-m uphill skiing (7.5° incline) at moderate (65 % intensity: 3.5 ± 0.3 m/s), high (80 % intensity: 4.5 ± 0.4 m/s), and maximal (100 % intensity: 5.6 ± 0.6 m/s) speeds |
Speed CR CL CT Pole forces Plantar forces |
CR and CL increased from moderate to high speed, while CR was higher and CL lower at maximal than high speed Kick time decreased 26 % from moderate to maximal speed Relative kick and gliding times were altered only at maximal speed, where these were longer and shorter, respectively Rate of force development was enhanced at higher speeds At maximal speed, sprint-specialists were 14 % faster than distance-specialists due to higher CR, peak leg force, and rate of leg force development Pronounced peak leg forces were applied rapidly at all speeds and the relatively shorter gliding and longer kick phases at maximal speed allowed the duration of the kick for force generation to be maintained Rapid generation of leg force is highly important during DIA |
| Bortolan et al. [44] 61 % QE/CS Biomechanics |
Sample: 9 males Country: NS Level: international Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DP Conditions: laboratory (new ergometer) and snow Tests: 50-s DP on the ergometer, maximal 1190-m TT simulated race DP on snow and 3 × 1190-m submaximal TT on snow with the last 180 m all-out (12-min rest between heats) |
TT speed Mean power output on the ergometer CT |
Mean speed last 180 m of TT: 6.7 ± 0.7 m/s 50-s mean power: 672 ± 167 W (9.2 ± 2.3 W/kg) Performance on ergometer and final 180-m sprint were correlated (r = 0.87, p < 0.05) CT on the ergometer: 1.1 ± 0.2 s; and field: 0.8 ± 0.1 s The ergometer can be considered to provide ski-specific testing and is useful for evaluating upper-body involvement during skiing in a laboratory setting |
| Carlsson et al. [43] 72 % QE/CS Physiology and anthropometry |
Sample: 10 males Country: Sweden Level: international Speciality: NS FISsprint: 96 ± 27 |
Technique: DP and DIA Conditions: laboratory (treadmill and ergometer) and snow (actual race) Tests: lactate threshold (4°–8° incline) and maximal treadmill tests (4°–10° incline) with DIA, 60-s DP on a ski ergometer, and 1250-m race prologue on snow using the classical technique |
VO2OBLA
VO2peak VO2 Race speed Anthropometrics |
Mean speed race prologue: 6.3 ± 0.1 m/s Race speed was correlated to the absolute values of VO2OBLA (r = 0.79, p = 0.021), VO2peak (r = 0.86, p < 0.001), and VO2 during DP (r = 0.94, p < 0.001), as well as body mass (r = 0.72, p = 0.044) and FISsprint (r = −0.78, p = 0.022). However, body mass did not have an influence on the performance models explored Oxygen uptake at different skiing intensities and with different sub-techniques is an indicator of sprint-prologue performance A skier with 1 % higher oxygen uptake is likely to perform 0.2 % better |
| Carlsson et al. [47] 72 % QE/CS Anthropometry |
Sample: 18 males and 16 females Country: Sweden Level: elite Speciality: NS FISsprint: 114 ± 40 (males); 143 ± 48 (females) |
Technique: classic (sprint) and skate (distance) Conditions: laboratory (anthropometry) and snow (actual race) Tests: DXA and Swedish National Championships sprint (with classic) and distance (with skate) races on snow |
Race times Lean mass, fat mass, and bone Mineral density for the whole body and different body segments |
Absolute (in kg) whole-, upper-, and lower-body lean mass, and lower body lean mass were correlated with sprint-prologue performance by both males and females |
| Carlsson et al. [50] 67 % QE/CS Physiology |
Sample: 24 males and 14 females Country: Sweden Level: national and international Speciality: NS FISsprint: 242 ± 105 (males); 242 ± 117 (females) |
Technique: DP and DIA Conditions: field (tartan track and asphalt) Tests: 3-km running TT on tartan, 2-km uphill (1.2° incline) roller-skiing TT on asphalt with DP, and 2-km uphill (2.8° incline) roller-skiing TT with DIA on asphalt |
TT times FIS points |
FISsprint points and TT times using running, DP, and DIA were correlated for both males and females TT can predict competitive skiing performance by junior cross-country skiers |
| Losnegard et al. [11] 56 % QE/CS Physiology and biomechanics |
Sample: 12 males Country: Norway Level: upper national to international Speciality: sprint, distance, or long-distance skiers FISsprint: NS |
Technique: G2 (V1) and G3 (V2) Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) Tests: submaximal tests (4°, 5°, and 6° incline), maximal tests (6°–8° incline), and 600-m self-selected pace (7°) TTs with G2 (V1) and G3 (V2) techniques |
TT times VO2peak ΣO2 demand, ΣO2 uptake, and ΣO2 deficit Aerobic versus anaerobic contribution to energy production CL CR |
Similar 600-m TT performances (~170 s), ΣO2 demand, ΣO2 uptake, and ΣO2 deficit between G2 (V1) and G3 (V2) VO2peak with G2 (V1) and G3 (V2) was 72.4 and 71.5 ml/kg/min, respectively, and ΣO2 deficit was 62.2 and 60.2 ml/kg ΣO2 deficit from the 600-m TT accounted for ~26 % of the total O2 cost O2 cost at 5°, ΣO2 deficit, and VO2peak explained 66 to 75 % of the variation in the 600-m TT performance Faster skiers with G3 (V2) showed longer CL but similar CR as slower skiers. With G2 (V1), the contribution of both CR and CL distinguished between skiers with differing 600-m TT times Anaerobic power is a key factor for sprint skiing performance |
| Losnegard and Hallén [37] 75 % QE/CS Physiology and anthropometry |
Sample: 6 males Country: Norway Level: national to international Speciality: 6 sprint and 7 distance skiers FISsprint: 37.3 ± 19.2 (6 sprint skiers); 84.9 ± 32.5 (7 distance skiers) |
Technique: G3 (V2) Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) Tests: submaximal test (3.5°–6° incline at 3 m/s), and 1000-m self-selected pace TT (6° incline at 3.25–5 m/s) |
Body height, body mass, body mass index VO2peak Work economy ΣO2 demand, ΣO2 uptake, and ΣO2 deficit Training history FIS points |
Relative VO2peak during the TT ranged from 71.8 to 87.8 ml/kg/min ΣO2 deficit during the submaximal test ranged from 58.8–91.0 ml/kg Total O2 cost (l/min) during the submaximal test was higher in the sprint skiers, but identical between sprint and distance skiers when expressed relative to body mass (ml/kg/min) Absolute VO2peak (l/min) and anaerobic capacity (estimated from ΣO2 deficit) from the maximal test were higher in sprint skiers, but distance skiers had greater relative VO2peak (ml/min/kg) Sprint specialists were heavier and taller than distance specialists Sprint skiers performed more strength and speed workouts than distance skiers |
| Mikkola et al. [38] 67 % QE/CS Physiology, neuromuscular, and anthropometry |
Sample: 16 males Country: Finland Level: international Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DP and G3 (V2) Conditions: laboratory (anthropometry and strength) and field (tartan track) Tests: 30-m peak G3 (V2) and DP speed, 4 × 850-m sprint TTs (20-min rest between heats) with G3 (V2), 10 × 150 m with G3 (V2) (maximal anaerobic skiing test), 2 × 2000 m DP test (submaximal, maximal), strength tests (bench press, trunk flexors, trunk extensors), and estimation of body fat |
30-m speed Heat speed in the TT VO2peak in each heat Lactate response during each heat Strength Body composition |
Mean heat speed was 6.12 ± 0.11 and 5.83 ± 0.15 m/s for fastest and slowest 8 skiers, respectively (p < 0.001) Heat speeds did not change during the simulation Relative VO2peak (mean: 65.4 ml/min/kg) and peak lactate (mean: 13.3 mmol) during the heats were similar for the groups, but the fastest skiers exhibited higher absolute VO2peak (ml/min) Faster skiers had higher speeds during the maximal anaerobic test Relative bench press force was the only neuromuscular variable related to mean speed during the TT (r = 0.52, p < 0.05) Upper-body and trunk forces correlated to maximal speed and the anaerobic test results Fastest skiers tended to be heavier (p = 0.083) during the sprint TT Findings indicate that both anaerobic and aerobic metabolisms are important for sprint skiing on flat terrain under slow conditions Skiers should develop both aerobic and anaerobic capacity, as well as neuromuscular capacities, particularly of the upper body |
| Mikkola et al. [14] 72 % QE/CS Biomechanics and physiology |
Sample: 12 males Country: Finland Level: national and international Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DP Conditions: snow (ski tunnel) Tests: 4 × 1150-m heats (20-min rest between heats) with DP, with first and last 40 m of each heat all-out |
Speed Final sprint speed Cycle characteristics Poling forces HR Blood lactate |
Speed decreased by 2.7 ± 1.7 % from heat 1 to 4 (6.07–5.92 m/s, p = 0.003), as did spurting speed (~16 ± 5 %, p < 0.002) Vertical and horizontal poling impulses did not differ significantly within heats, but mean and peak pole forces decreased from start to finish The reduction in speed between and within heats indicated fatigue Fatigue was also indicated by lowered production of pole forces and longer poling times within heats Sprint skiers should improve their resistance to fatigue, particularly in the upper body, to minimize reductions in speed within and between heats |
| Sandbakk et al. [29] 65 % QE/CS Physiology, biomechanics, and neuromuscular |
Sample: 16 males Country: Norway Level: 8 world-class and 8 national level skiers Speciality: sprint FISsprint: 22.5 ± 12.0 (8 world-class); 100.6 ± 45.8 (8 national level) |
Technique: G3 (V2) Conditions: laboratory (treadmill, strength) Tests: submaximal test at 14, 16, and 18 km/h (5 % incline), VO2peak (8 % incline), v peak (8 % incline), and maximal strength (single-leg squat and poling test) |
VO2
Work rate Metabolic rate Gross efficiency HR Blood lactate Time to exhaustion Strength |
World-class sprint skiers demonstrated greater gross efficiency than national skiers with G3 World-class and national skiers did not differ in aerobic metabolic rate, but the former showed lower anaerobic metabolic rate World-class skiers achieved higher v peak (23.8 vs. 22.0 km/h), higher VO2peak (70.6 vs. 65.8 ml/min/kg), and longer times to exhaustion, but had upper- and lower-body strength similar to national skiers World-class skiers used longer CL and lower CR than national skiers at submaximal and maximal speeds World-class skiers were more efficient, perhaps due to better technique and technique-specific generation of power |
| Sandbakk et al. [13] 70 % QE/CS Physiology, biomechanics, and anthropometry |
Sample: 8 males and 8 females Country: Norway Level: World Cup top 30 Speciality: sprint FISsprint: 49.9 ± 12.0 (males); 49.0 ± 14.3 (females) |
Technique: G3 (V2) Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) Tests: submaximal test (start 3.9 and 3.6 m/s at 5 % incline for males and females), VO2peak (5 % incline), and v peak (8 % incline) |
VO2
Work rate Metabolic rate Gross efficiency HR Blood lactate Time to exhaustion v peak CR CL |
Larger sex differences in performance and VO2peak than reported for comparable endurance sports (higher VO2peak and lower percentage body fat in males) At the same submaximal speed, the gross efficiency and work economy of males and females are similar At the same submaximal speed, males used 11 % longer CL at lower CR, as well as 21 % longer CL at peak speed during the VO2peak test Males attained a 17 % higher v peak and peak treadmill speed (i.e., work rates) during the VO2peak (~5 min in duration) and v peak (~1 min) tests, respectively |
| Sandbakk et al. [18] 65 % QE/CS Physiology and neuromuscular |
Sample: 16 males Country: Norway Level: 8 world-class and 8 national-level skiers Speciality: sprint FISsprint: 22.5 ± 12 (world-class); 100.6 ± 45.8 (national level) |
Technique: G3 (V2) Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) and field (asphalt) Tests: submaximal test (3.9 m/s at 5 % incline on treadmill), VO2peak (5 % incline on treadmill), v peak (8 % incline on treadmill) 30-m maximal sprint (1 % incline on asphalt), maximal strength (single-leg squat and poling test), training history |
VO2
Work rate Gross efficiency HR Blood lactate Time to exhaustion v peak Acceleration Maximal strength FIS points |
World-class skiers demonstrated less physiological stress and a higher gross efficiency during the submaximal test World-class skiers showed 8 % higher VO2peak and a VO2-plateau time that was twice as long during the VO2peak test World-class skiers showed 8 % higher v peak, but did not differ from national skiers in acceleration and strength World-class skiers performed 30 % more training, mainly by more low- and moderate-intensity endurance training and speed training Aerobic capacity, efficiency, high-speed capacity, and faster recovery differentiate world- and national-class sprint skiers and might determine sprint performance |
| Sandbakk et al. [49] 65 % FE/RM Physiology |
Sample: 10 males Country: Norway Level: elite junior Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: skate Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) and field (asphalt) Tests: pre- and post-intervention (8-week training intervention with increased high-intensity endurance training) tests included 1500-m TT skating (on asphalt) and VO2peak test running (10.5 % incline on treadmill) |
VO2peak
VO2 at VT Work rate HR Blood lactate CR CL Gross efficiency Training history |
Aerobic power (VO2peak and VO2 at VT) closely related to sprint performance The intervention group improved sprint performance, VO2peak, and VO2 at VT significantly High-intensity endurance training may improve performance and aerobic capacity in junior skiers Sprint skiers should be advised to perform more high-intensity endurance training on level terrain |
| Sandbakk et al. [17] 78 % QE/CS Biomechanics, physiology, and anthropometry |
Sample: 12 males Country: Norway Level: elite Speciality: sprint FISsprint: 44.1 ± 40.0 |
Technique: skate Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) and snow (FIS sprint skating competition) Tests: 1820-m sprint TT on snow with −6 to +8 % incline (one-third flat, one-third uphill, one-third downhill) and submaximal test (3.9 m/s at 5 % incline), VO2peak test (at 5 % incline), and v peak test on a treadmill with G3 (V2) |
VO2peak
v peak HR Blood lactate TT section speed TT gear selection CL CR Gross efficiency FIS points |
TT time was 240 ± 5 s and strongly related to FISsprint (r = 0.96, p < 0.001) Mean speed in the final two uphill and final two flat sections correlated strongly with performance Total uphill and flat times were correlated with overall TT time (r = 0.91 and 0.82, p < 0.001) Relative VO2peak, v peak, gross efficiency, and CL were all correlated with TT time (r = −0.83 to −0.85, p < 0.001) VO2peak, v peak, and peak CL in combination provided the best prediction of TT performance (R 2 = 0.933, p < 0.001) High aerobic power is important for sprint TT performance |
| Stöggl et al. [42] 72 % QE/CS Physiology and biomechanics |
Sample: 25 males and 6 females Country: Austria, Slovakia, Switzerland Level: national and student national teams Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DP Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) and field (tartan track and paved road) Tests: 50-m DP v peak on track, DP v peak on treadmill, 1,000-m DP on treadmill, and 1000-m DP on road (with 1°–4° incline) |
50 m-DP time and speed DP v peak 1000-m field time 1000-m treadmill time, mean speed, peak speed, and fatigue index (peak minus mean speed) |
All tests (50-m DP, DP v
peak, and 1000-m DP on treadmill) were reliable (r = 0.78–0.99, p < 0.001, CV = 0.79–6.18 %) Time and v peak during 50-m DP correlated with v peak on the treadmill (r = −0.90 and 0.86; p < 0.001), confirming test validity 1000-m field test time correlated with 1000-m treadmill test time (r = 0.96, p < 0.01), confirming test validity 50-m DP time, 50-m DP v peak, treadmill v peak, and fatigue index all correlated to 1000-m field time (p < 0.001) Cross-country DP sprint skiing tests appear to be reliable and valid Developing maximal DP peak speed should improve DP performance over sprint race distances |
| Stöggl et al. [19] 58 % QE/CS Physiology and biomechanics |
Sample: 12 males Country: Austria Level: national team Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: classic Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) Tests: DP v peak, DIA v peak, VO2peak, 3 × 1100-m heats simulating a World Cup classic sprint race (25-min and 20-min rest between heats 1 and 2, and heats 2 and 3) |
TT time and speed VO2peak HR Blood lactate poling frequency CL v peak |
DP v
peak and DIA v
peak positively correlated to mean TT speed (r = 0.87–0.93, p < 0.001) VO2peak test time (r = 0.74, p < 0.01), but not VO2peak value, significantly correlated to sprint performance VO2 and tidal volume decreased from heat 1–3 Faster skiers generated significantly higher blood levels of lactate Faster skiers used fewer pole plants and diagonal cycles, as well as longer CL, thereby achieving more propulsion with equal CR A statistically non-significant tendency was found for the best-performing skiers trying to use DP-kick in the moderate uphill sections and when changing grades, while skiers of moderate performance seldom used DP-kick The positive influence of maximal speed on sprint performance suggests that increasing the proportion of training designed to improve speed might be beneficial for all skiing techniques |
| Stöggl et al. [46] 58 % QE/CS Biomechanics and physiology |
Sample: 25 males and 6 females Country: Austria, Slovakia, Switzerland Level: national and student national team Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DP Conditions: laboratory (rollerboard ergometer and treadmill) and field (tartan track) Tests: two-phase test on a rollerboard, with a four-repetition maximal test and 40-repetition test; DP 50-m v peak on track, DP v peak on treadmill, 1000-m DP on treadmill |
50 m-DP time and speed DP v peak 1000-m treadmill time, mean speed, peak speed, and fatigue index (peak minus mean speed) mean and peak speed, time to Rollerboard test peak speed, peak acceleration, mean power, peak force, time to peak force, rate of force development, impulse, and fatigue indexes (peak minus mean values) |
Four-repetition maximal and 40-repetition speed and power values were reliable Mean peak speed during 40 repetitions and power-based fatigue indexes exhibited the best correlation with 1000-m DP speed Peak speed during the four-repetition maximal test accounted for 84 % of the variation in 50-m DP performance Peak speed and power during the four-repetition maximal accounted for 61 % of the variation in the 1000-m DP speed, and peak speed during the 40-repetition test accounted for 69 % of the 1000-m DP speed The four-repetition maximal test alone is simple, reliable, and valid for diagnosing upper-body and DP performance in skiers |
| Stöggl et al. [32] 61 % QE/CS Biomechanics |
Sample:13 (sex not indicated) Country: Austria Level: national and student teams Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: G3 (V2) and double push Conditions: snow Tests: 100-m sprint on 2° uphill |
Speed Pole force Plantar force Knee angle EMG CL CR CT |
Double push was 2.9 ± 2.2 % faster than G3 (p > 0.001) Double push involved longer CL and CT, and lower CR Peak knee angle, range of knee extension, angular knee speed, plantar force, and muscle activity during the first push-off are greater with double push No difference in pole force between these two techniques Double push can be employed during cross-country skiing to improve the speed of short maximal sprints on moderately uphill slopes |
| Stöggl and Müller [33] 68 % QE/CS Biomechanics, physiology, and anthropometry |
Sample: 24 males Country: Austria, Greece Level: national team Speciality: NS FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DP, DIA, and G3 (V2) Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) Tests: MART protocol performed using the DP (at 1.5° incline), DIA (at 4.5 m/s), and G3 (V2, at 2.5° incline) techniques |
v
peak
HR Blood lactate and glucose CR CL CT Anthropometry (body height and pole length) |
At MART termination, peak speed was 8.17 ± 0.3 and 8.9 ± 0.3 m/s during DP and G3 (V2), and peak grade was 11° ± 1° during DIA MART protocol is transferable to all three skiing techniques With all techniques, skiers elevated speed by increasing CR and attempting to maintain CL 13 skiers switched to the double-push technique during the G3 (V2) test and reached higher maximal speeds DP exhibited an optimal CL (~at 7.5 m) and CR (~at 1.2 Hz) at v peak Duration of the swing phase was most closely related to performance, where the duration of the arm swing positively correlated with performance in all techniques Peak lactate level correlated to v peak with all techniques Absolute body height and pole length correlated to peak DP speed only, indicating a tendency for taller skiers to be faster |
| Stöggl et al. [31] 58 % QE/CS Biomechanics |
Sample: 6 males Country: Austria Level: national and student national team Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: G2 (V1), G3 (V2), and double-push Conditions: snow Tests: 60-m uphill (7–10° incline) at maximal speed |
Sprint time and speed Pole force Plantar force Knee angle CR CL CT |
60-m speed with G2 (V1), double-push, and G3 (V2) was 5.51 ± 0.23, 5.44 ± 0.23, and 5.21 ± 0.25, m/s Speed with G2 (V1) and double-push techniques was similar and both faster (~5.5 and 4.3 %) than G3 (V2) Double push and G3 (V2) involved longer CL and CT, lower CR, shorter duration of the first push-off, and longer flight time than G2 (V1). Peak plantar and impulse forces during the second push-off were also higher with comparable poling frequencies and forces CL, peak plantar force, and knee extension range of motion and angular speeds are higher in double-push than G3 (V2) In comparison with G2 (V1), double-push requires less space due to less lateral displacement and no technique transitions upon entering and leaving an uphill section |
| Stöggl et al. [30] 59 % QE/CS Anthropometry |
Sample:14 males Country: Sweden, Austria, Norway Level: national and international Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DIA and DP Conditions: laboratory (anthropometry and treadmill) Tests: DXA scan, v peak with DIA (at 7° incline) and DP (at 1° incline) |
DP and DIA v
peak
Total, lean, fat, and bone mass for the whole body, trunk, legs, and arms Body dimensions (segment lengths) |
v
peak with DP and DIA was 31.8 ± 1.9 and 18.4 ± 0.8 km/h Height and most other body dimensions were unrelated to v peak Body, total trunk, and lean trunk mass strongly related to DP v peak Absolute and relative body and trunk mass related to DIA v peak Skiers should focus on increasing whole body lean mass for improving v peak, particularly of the trunk for DP and of the trunk and arms for DIA |
| Stöggl et al. [12] 58 % QE/CS Biomechanics and neuromuscular |
Sample: 16 males Country: Sweden, Austria, Norway Level: national and international Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DP, DIA and G3 (V2) Conditions: laboratory (treadmill and strength) Tests: strength and power tests, v peak during DP (at 1° incline), DIA (at 7° incline), and G3 (V2, at 2.5° incline) |
DP, DIA, and G3 (V2) v
peak
CR CL CT Pole force Plantar force Upper- and lower-body strength and power tests (isometric leg tests, squat jump, bench press, bench-pull, and brutal-bench repetitions) |
Relationships between exercises involving general strength and v
peak depend on the skiing technique None of the isometric strength tests were related to v peak Number of brutal-bench repetitions, bench press and pull power, and squat jump force measures related to DP v peak Bench press and pull, and squat jump measures related to DIA v peak 1-repetition maximum bench press (in kg) and squat jump height (in m) related to G3 (V2) v peak With all three techniques, increase to v peak involved enhanced CR, with an associated reduction in CL during DP and DIA With all three techniques, strategies utilised when approaching v peak differed between faster and slower skiers Faster skiers not only applied greater forces, but also displayed better temporal coordination of force application Sprint skiers need a certain level of strength, but more appears not necessarily superior |
| Stöggl and Holmberg [45] 67 % QE/CS Biomechanics |
Sample: 16 males Country: Sweden, Austria, Norway Level: national and international Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DP Conditions: laboratory (treadmill and strength) Tests: v peak during DP (at 1° incline) |
Pole force 3D kinematics |
v
peak during DP was 31.7 ± 1.7 km/h Relative (% body height), but not absolute, pole length related to v peak Faster skiers exhibit a distinct preparation phase to the pole plant, with the duration of the preparation phase predicting DP v peak Faster skiers exhibited longer CL and absolute swing and poling times, as well as greater peak pole forces that occurred later in the poling phase |
| Stöggl and Holmberg [41] 58 % QE/CS Biomechanics |
Sample: 15 males Country: Sweden, Austria, Norway Level: national and international Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: G2 (V1) Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) Tests: v peak and submaximal speeds (13, 14, 15, 16 km/h at 7° incline) |
v
peak
Pole forces Plantar forces 3D kinematics CT CL CR |
v
peak during G2 (V1) was 17.8 ± 0.8 km/h As speed increased, CR elevated by 20 %, whereas poling and leg push-off times fell by 21 % Poling time was shorter, propulsive pole impulse forces lower, and leg push-off time longer on the “weak” than “strong” sides of the body Power in the direction of skiing rose with increasing speed Poles generated ~44 % of the total propulsion, being more effective than legs (~59 % vs. 11 %, p < 0.001) Faster skiers exhibited more well-synchronized poling and more symmetric edging and force generation by legs, as well as more effectively transforming resultant forces into propulsion CL was unrelated to both v peak and total propulsive force impulses Certain differences in the pole and leg forces on the “strong” and “weak” sides of the body were pronounced, highlighting asymmetry of the G2 (V1) technique |
| Tønnessen et al. [48] 72 % QE/CS Physiology |
Sample: 66 males and 45 females Country: Norway Level: international Speciality: 59 sprint or distance, 33 biathlon, and 19 Nordic combined FISsprint: NS |
Technique: not applicable Conditions: laboratory (treadmill) Tests: MART |
VO2peak
History of medal at the Olympics or World Championships |
On average, Olympic-medal benchmarks for relative VO
2peak values were 78 and 68 ml/kg/min for male and female sprint skiers, respectively. The corresponding benchmarks for absolute VO2peak values were 6.3 and 4.0 l/min The differences in relative and absolute VO2peak values between medallist and non-medallist sprint skiers were trivial High VO2peak is necessary for high-level sprint skiing performance |
| Vesterinen et al. [39] 58 % QE/CS Physiology, biomechanics, and neuromuscular |
Sample: 16 males Country: Finland Level: national team Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: G3 (V2) Conditions: field (tartan track) Tests: 30-m v peak, 4 × 850-m heats with first and last 50-m all-out (20- min rest between heats) |
v
peak
VO2peak HR Blood lactate EMG CT CL CR |
Time and mean speed did not change during the 4 heats, but initial speed in heat 4 was slower Peak VO2, HR, and lactate did not change from heat 1 to 4 Maximal speed within heats decreased from start to end, as did muscle activity and CR Changes in metabolic responses, cycle variables, v peak, and muscle activity within each heat indicated induction of fatigue Correlation between peak lactate and speed during heat 1 indicated that anaerobic power was especially important during this first heat Mean VO2peak correlated with change in speed from heat 1 to 4, indicating that skiers with more aerobic power developed less fatigue during the simulation |
| Zory et al. [16] 56 % NE/CS Biomechanics |
Sample: 30 males Country: NS Level: World Cup Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: DIA Conditions: snow (video analysis of the Viessmann World Cup 1.2 km classic race) Tests: final 200 m (5 % incline) filmed and analysed |
Race speed Stride speed Stride length Stride rate |
Mean race speed was 7.33 m/s Mean stride speed, length, and rate were 4.78 m/s, 2.16 m, and 2.2 Hz, respectively Stride speed correlated with race speed and stride rate Faster skiers used higher stride rate Speed on the uphill section analysed had an important impact on race outcome Skiers need to develop high frequencies to attain high speeds |
| Zory et al. [34] 78 % QE/CS Biomechanics and physiology |
Sample: 7 males Country: Italy Level: national team Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: classic Conditions: snow and laboratory (ergometer) Tests: 50-s maximal DP ergometer test, voluntary and evoked knee flexor and extensor MVC, 3 × 1200-m TT using the classic technique with the last 180 m all-out with DP (12-min rest between heats) |
TT time and speed Blood lactate Knee flexor and extensor MVC EMG Ergormeter force, velocity, and power |
Mean speed was similar for all heats (~6.97 m/s), but the final sprint speed was significantly lower in heat 3 than in heat 1 (6.55 vs. 6.13 m/s) Lactate increased significantly from heat 1 to 3 Knee extensor MVC was 9.8 ± 9.5 % lower post TT, with no significant difference in knee flexor MVC Mean power frequency of rectus and biceps femoris muscles was significantly lower after the TT Upper-body force and power were reduced after the TT Changes were indicative of fatigue induced by the TT protocol |
| Zory et al. [36] 63 % QE/CS Biomechanics and neuromuscular |
Sample: 8 males Country: Italy Level: national team Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: classic Conditions: snow and laboratory (strength) Tests: 50-s maximal DP ergometer test, knee flexor and extensor MVC, 3 × 1200-m TT (12-min rest between heats) using the classic technique with flat, uphill, and downhill sections. The last 180 m of the TT was all-out with DP (at 2 % incline) |
TT time and speed Blood lactate Knee flexor and extensor MVC EMG Ergometer force, velocity, and power CL CR Cycle speed Ankle, knee, hip, trunk, elbow and pole angles |
Mean speed was similar for all heats (~6.66 m/s), but the final sprint speed was significantly lower in heat 3 than 1 (6.57 vs. 6.23 m/s) Lactate increased significantly from heat 1 to 3 Knee extensor MVC was 10.4 ± 10.4 % lower post TT, with no significant difference in knee flexor MVC Mean power frequency of rectus and biceps femoris muscles was significantly lower after the TT Upper-body force and power were reduced after the TT Cycle speed decreased in successive heats Joint and poling angles were generally similar in all heats, except for the trunk, hip, and poles being less flexed at the end of the poling phase in heat 3 than in heat 1, suggesting less effective force application |
| Zory et al. [35] 76 % QE/CS Neuromuscular, biomechanics, and physiology |
Sample: 8 males Country: NS Level: international Speciality: sprint FISsprint: NS |
Technique: classic Conditions: snow Tests: 3 × 1200-m TT (12-min rest between heats) using the classic technique with flat, uphill, and downhill sections. The last 180 m of the TT was all-out with DP (at 2 % incline) |
TT time and speed EMG- activation and frequency Blood lactate |
Final sprint speed was significantly lower in heat 3 than in heat 1 (6.41 vs. 5.98 m/s) Lactate increased significantly from heat 1 to 3 Activation patterns were maintained, but 6 of 8 muscles exhibited signs of fatigue The biceps brachii muscle exhibited the greatest fatigability Fatigue was more pronounced in the upper than lower body The higher speed in heat 1 than in heat 3 was not explained by changes in muscle activation |
CL cycle length, CR cycle rate, CS case series, CT cycle time, CV coefficient of variation, DIA diagonal stride, DP double poling, DXA dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, EMG electromyography, FE fully-experimental, FIS International Ski Federation, FIS sprint International Ski Federation sprint points, GNSS global navigation satellite system, HR heart rate, MART maximal anaerobic running test, MVC maximal voluntary contraction, NE non-experimental, NS not stated, ΣO 2 accumulated oxygen, OBLA onset of blood lactate, QE quasi-experimental, RM repeated measures, TT time-trial, v peak peak velocity, VO 2peak peak oxygen uptake, VT ventilatory threshold