Table 3.
Physicochemical and microbiological parameters of water samples in school and community in Dolakha and Ramechhap districts, Nepal (sampling period: May and June 2015).
| Category | Parameter | Unit | Range | School | Community | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | Dolakha | Ramechhap | Overall | Dolakha | Ramechhap | |||||||
| Main Source * (N = 16) | Point-of-Use ** (N = 13) | Main Source * (n = 13) | Point-of-Use (n = 10) | Main Source * (n = 3) | Point-of-Use (n = 3) | (n= 43) | (n = 33) | (n = 10) | ||||
| n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | ||||
| Physical characteristics | Turbidity | NTU | >5 | 0 (0.0) | 1 (7.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (10.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (9.3) | 3 (9.1) | 1 (10.0) |
| 2–5 | 16 (100.0) | 12 (92.3) | 13 (100.0) | 9 (90.0) | 3 (100.0) | 3 (100.0) | 39 (90.7) | 30 (90.9) | 9 (90.9) | |||
| pH | 6.5–8.5 | 0 (0.0) | 13 (100.0) | 13 (100.0) | 10 (100.0) | 3 (100.0) | 3 (100.0) | 43 (100.0) | 33 (100.0) | 10 (100.0) | ||
| Chemical characteristics | Free residual chlorine *** | 0.1–0.2 | 16 (100.0) | 13 (100.0) | 13 (100.0) | 10 (100.0) | 3 (100.0) | 3 (100.0) | 43 (100.0) | 33 (100.0) | 10 (100.0) | |
| Total residual chlorine | mg/L | 0.2–0.5 | 16 (100.0) | 13 (100.0) | 13 (100.0) | 10 (100.0) | 3 (100.0) | 3 (100.0) | 41 (95.3) | 31 (93.9) | 10 (100.0) | |
| 0–0.199 | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.7) | 2 (15.1) | 0 (0.0) | |||
| Lead | mg/L | <0.01 | 16 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 13 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||||
| Arsenic | mg/L | <0.05 | 16 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 13 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||||
| Microbiological characteristics | Thermo-tolerant coliforms (TTC) *** | CFU/100 mL | <1 | 4 (25.0) | 3 (23.1) | 3 (23.1) | 3 (30.0) | 1 (33.3) | 0 (0.0) | 26 (60.5) | 21 (63.6) | 5 (50.0) |
| 1–10 | 5 (31.3) | 4 (30.8) | 5 (38.5) | 2 (20.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (66.7) | 3 (7.0) | 2 (6.0) | 1 (10.0) | |||
| 11–100 | 6 (37.5) | 2 (15.4) | 4 (30.8) | 2 (20.0) | 2 (66.7) | 0 (0.0) | 8 (18.6) | 6 (18.2) | 2 (20.0) | |||
| >100 | 1 (6.2) | 4 (30.7) | 1 (7.6) | 3 (30.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (33.3) | 6 (13.9) | 4 (12.1) | 2 (20.0) | |||
* Main sources are the main drinking water sources, such as stand pipes, piped water, and spring water, which are available at the school. ** Point-of-use is the drinking water cups used for drinking water by the surveyed school-aged children; *** The presence of TTC despite the residual chlorine at acceptable range depends on the “contact time” and the bacterial type. CFU, Colony forming unit; NTU, Nephelometric turbidity unit.